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THE 



BOOK OF ANALYSIS, 



A NEW METHOD 



OF 



EXPERIENCE ; 

WHEREBY THE INDUCTION 

OF THE 

NOVUM ORGANON 

IS MADE EASY OF APPLICATION TO 

MEDICINE, PHYSIOLOGY, METEOROLOGY, AND NATURAL HIS- 
TORY ; TO STATISTICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, METAPHYSICS, 
AND THE MORE COMPLEX DEPARTMENTS OF KNOWLEDGE. 



Ut scilicet mens per artem fiat rebus par. 

De Augmentu Scientiarum. 



By TWEEDY JOHN TODD, M. D. 

OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF LONDON, &C. &C 



LONDON: 

JOHN MURRAY, ALBERMARLE STREET. 



MDCCCXXXI. 



if* 




fe 



^ 6 T1 



LONDON: 

Gaulter, Printer, Lovell's Court, Paternoster-Row. 



/ Si 



w 



TO 



JAMES CLARK, M-D. 



PHYSICIAN IN ORDINARY TO HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS PRINCE 

LEOPOLD OF SAXE COBURG, AND PHYSICIAN TO ST. 

GEORGE'S INFIRMARY, &c. &c. &c. 



My Dear Friend, 

A work having for its object to 
increase the certainty of Medicine, might, 
with peculiar propriety, be inscribed to a 
scientific and conscientious physician, the 
whole tenour of whose life has been distin- 
guished by an anxious solicitude for the 
advancement of the art : But had I not so 



DEDICATION. 

fair a reason for dedicating such a work to 
you, I should still be desirous of seizing this 
occasion to testify the deep sense I entertain 
of the kind partiality, which, since our first 
acquaintance, you have ever felt for me, and 
the value I set upon the steady friendship 
with which, you have continued to honor 
me. 

Your faithful 

And obliged Friend, 

TWEEDY JOHN TODD. 

Brighton, July 10, 1831. 



PREFACE, 



In venturing to submit to the eye of the 
Public the following little work on the sub- 
ject of Induction, I am not aware that I 
could offer a better apology than the reasons 
which are stated in the following passage 
from the writings of the most sensible and 
the most enlightened of the philosophers, who 
have distinguished this age. "In the me- 
chanical arts, it is well known, how much 
time and ingenuity are misapplied, by those 
who acquire their practical skill, by their own 
trials, undirected by the precepts or examples 



11 PREFACE. 

of others. What we call the rules of an art, 
are merely a collection of general obser- 
vations, suggested by long experience, with 
respect to the most compendious and ef- 
fectual means of performing every different 
step of the processes which the art involves. 
In consequence of such rules, the artist is 
enabled to command the same success in all 
his operations, for which the unskilled work- 
man must trust to a happy combination of 
accidental circumstances; the misapplications, 
too, of the labours of one race are saved to 
the next; and the acquisition of practical 
address is facilitated, by confining its exertions 
to one direction. — The analogy is perfect, in 
those processes which are purely intellectual, 
and to regulate which, is the great object of 
logic. In the case of individuals, who have 
no other guide to direct them in their in- 
quiries than their own hatural sagacity, much 
time and ingenuity must inevitably be thrown 
away, in every exertion of the inventive 
powers. In proportion, however, to the de- 



PREFACE. Ill 

gree of their experience and observation, the 
number of these misapplications will diminish; 
and the power of invention will be enabled to 
proceed with more certainty and steadiness to 
its object. The misfortune is, that as the 
aids, which the understanding derives from 
experience, are seldom recorded in writing, 
or even described in words, every succeeding 
inquirer finds himself, at the commencement 
of his philosophical pursuits, obliged to strug- 
gle with the same disadvantages which had 
retarded the progress of his predecessors. 
If the more important practical rules, which 
habits of investigation suggest to individuals, 
were diligently preserved, each generation 
would be placed in circumstances more fa- 
vourable to invention than the preceding ; 
and the progress of knowledge, instead of 
cramping original genius, would assist and 
direct its exertions."* 

It is precisely one of these practical rules, 

Stewart's Philosophy of the Human Mind. 



IV PREFACE. 

suggested to me in the course of some ana- 
lytical inquiries, which I now propose to 
place upon record, not, however, unaccom- 
panied by a confident hope, that, worked out 
by more practised hands, it may be found 
susceptible of ameliorations which may ulti- 
mately tend very materially to improve our 
Method of Experience. Nor can I help in- 
dulging a wish, perhaps rather than an ex- 
pectation, that even, as an example, this 
publication may have this beneficial result, — 
that it may call forth, from the portfolios of 
the learned, many practical expedients which 
their experience may have taught them, and 
w r hich, I very much suspect, only remain un- 
known from a notion of their unimportance. 

Brighton, August 17, 1830. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The Induction of the Ancients — The Induction of the Mo- 
derns before Lord Bacon — The philosophers who made use of 
Induction before Lord Bacon utterly ignorant of their instrument 
— How Lord Bacon was probably led to his great discovery — The 
present neglect of Induction — Different denominations of In- 
ductive Philosophers, Synthesists, Specialists, Analysists — Causes 
in which the neglect of Induction has originated — The mind 
naturally averse to rules of art — A bias in favour of natural or 
intuitive Induction — A regular method of Induction opposed to 
Practical Tact — Excuse in the present imperfect state of 
Induction — Was left unfinished by Lord Bacon — Different in- 
fluence of the neglect of Induction upon the different depart- 
ments of knowledge — Prejudicial consequences resulting from 
the neglect of Induction, waste of experience, false facts, false 
doctrines, p. 1 — 22. 

CHAiyi. 

OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION, PERFORMED BY TABULiE 

INVENIENDI. 

Method of Tabular Analysis, by combining the use of Tables 
and Signs — Translation of circumstances into signs — Manner of 



performing this process — Classification by affirmative circum- 
stances — Form I. a. — nature of this operation — Classification by 
negative circumstances — Form II. — manner of performing this 
process — nature of this process — Modifications of the Signs — 
Recapitulation — Synthesis — Form III. — facilities afforded by this 
process — Method of extracting the Induction by Rectification of 
the Signs — Nature of this operation — Recapitulation of the 
Processes — Rules for performing the different Processes — Pre- 
cautions necessary in performing the different Processes, p. 22 
—57. 

CHAP^II. 

The method of Induction by Classification compared with the 
Method of the NOVUM ORGANON. I. Lord Bacon's pre- 
cepts for the discovery of forms — The great DICTUM of the 
Inductive Logic — His method of performing the process of 
Induction — His method compared with the method of classifica- 
tion — II. Lord Bacon's views of completing the Philosophy of 
Experience, p. 59 — 74. 

CHAp/in. 

of certain advantages peculiar to the Method of Induction 
by Classification. 

I. It places many branches of knowledge within the grasp of 
Induction which the ordinary method cannot effect — It connects 
general principles more intimately and correctly with individual 
cases — Is saving of experience — Elicits prerogative instances — Is 
capable of comprehending any number of instances — II. Affords 
all the facility which arises from the operation being performed 
by determined rules — Guards the mind from the influence of 
idola — The advantage of signs instead of words. — HI. It answers 
habits of close and accurate observation — And promotes those of 
method, of clear and perspicuous arrangement — And represents 
the natural operations of the mind. p. 75 — 85. 



Ill 
CHAP. IV. 

METHODUS CONTABULANDI, or modifications of the 
Tables of Analysis to suit different subjects of Investigation. 
p. 86—104. 

CHAP. V. 

APPLICATION OF THE METHOD OF INDUCTION BY CLASSIFICATION 
TO PARTICULAR SUBJECTS. 

Sect. I. Medicine. — The right method of studying medicine 
— Plan of an Analytical Hospital— THE BOOK OF MEDICAL 
ANALYSIS, or Guide for studying faithfully from Nature. 
105 — 154. Sect. II. Physiology — Its difficulties — Want of a 
better mode of Analysis. 155 — 159. Sect. III. Phrenology, 
Animal Magnetism, and Omoiopathic Medicine — Their claim to 
an attentive consideration — Mode of examination by Tabular 
Analysis. 160 — 161. Sect. IV. The Useful Arts, Chemistry, 
and Meteorology. 164 — 168. Sect. V. Classifications of 
Natural History — The Tabular Analysis likely to abbreviate and 
facilitate the process of Systematic Arrangement. 169 — 171. 
Sect. VI. Analysis of Testimony. 172 — 177. Sect. VII. 
Statistics and Political Economy. 178 — 183. 

Conclusion. 184 — 186. 



THE 



BOOK OF ANALYSIS, 



INTRODUCTION. 



" Causa vero et radix fere omnium malorum in scientiis ea una est : quod 
dum mentis humanae vires falsb miramur et extollimus, vera ejus auxilia non 
quseramus." 

THEY who have pleasure in searching for the 
origin of modern science in the learning of the 
ancients, might possibly discover many traces of 
the philosophy of experience, and some examples 
of the use of induction. They might find reason 
to believe, that the earliest of their philosophers 
felt and understood the full importance of the 
great cardinal truth, afterwards announced in the 
first aphorism of the Novum Organon. They 
might find that Hippocrates, who by some is sup- 
posed to have been of the number of their dis- 
ciples, formally asserted it, that the empirical 
physicians maintained it as the fundamental canon 
of their doctrine, and, if they should think it 
worth their pains to inquire with what instrument 
the great founder of the art of physic constructed 

B 



a THE INDUCTION OF THE ANCIENTS. 

his more finished works, they might probably be 
led to conclude that it could be no other than 
a method of induction : for unquestionably the 
fairest specimens of it known before the revival 
of letters, are those which he has left us. But 
pursuing their researches, they would also find, 
that these germs of the true philosophy, and 
probably many more which have merged in the 
stream of time*, failed to open to the ancient world 
the certain and the only road, which leads infallibly 
to the knowledge of nature. 

In the same manner, before the time of Lord 
Bacon, some modern philosophers of our own, as 
well as of foreign nations, insisted on the necessity 
of an appeal to experience, and presented to the 
world a few examples of the correct use of in- 
duction. But it seems by no means a groundless 
apprehension, that the same dark fate which 
eclipsed the early dawn of the experimental philo- 
sophy of antiquity, might also have extinguished 
its first faint glimmerings in later times, had not 
the greatest, because the truest of all philosophers, 
appeared upon the horizon, who, from his vast and 
comprehensive mind, shed those rays of clear and 
steady light, which establishing exclusively the 
principle of induction, laid open the path of science 
to every inquirer. What might have been the 

* Tempore ut fluvio leviora et magis inflata devehente, gravi- 
ora et solida mergente. 



THE INDUCTION OF THE MODERNS. 3 

history of induction had Lord Bacon never existed, 
it may seem idle now to conjecture, but it is very 
obvious there could have been no security for 
it, at any time, unless founded firmly upon prin- 
ciple, All that was known of it only by example, 
might soon have been effaced by the dogma of 
any splendid sophist, and, to bring the supposition 
nearer to the fact, let us imagine that Descartes had 
occupied the place of Bacon, we shall then under- 
stand the peril which hung over the philosophy of 
experience, and be better able to appreciate the obli- 
gations we owe to its great discoverer. To institute, 
therefore, any comparison between the merits of 
Lord Bacon and Galileo or of any other experimental 
philosopher who preceded him, as since the time of 
Hume has occasionally been revived, is altogether 
unwarrantable, and betrays a total misconception 
of the nature of the services which both have ren- 
dered to the cause of science. 

The philosophers who made use of the method 
of induction before Lord Bacon, were utterly 
ignorant of the nature of the instrument which 
they employed. Like travellers whom chance 
may have led to an unknown country, but neither 
knowing the road by which they went or by 
which they returned, they could afford no help for 
conducting others; and we ought not, therefore, to 
be much surprized, that they did not always obtain 
credence for the extraordinary things they report 
to have seen. But Lord Bacon, like the scientific 

b 2 



4 THE INDUCTION OF LORD BACON. 

navigator, sailed by the chart, and returning with 
a map of the country whither he had been, 
gave every one the power of following his tract, 
or of verifying his narrative. For being the first 
who ever had a conception of the instrument of 
induction, he explained its nature, showed its 
powers, and gave a rule for using it, and by this 
rule he placed within the reach of the meanest 
capacity resources which theretofore had been at 
the disposal only of minds highly gifted by nature. 
If we consider for a moment the nature of this 
instrument, the general use of which he may be 
said to have bestowed upon mankind, it will be 
easy to comprehend the magnitude and the im- 
portance of the discovery ; for being no less than 
the most powerful organ of human reason, the art 
of invention, he has only explained its real cha- 
racter in calling it the mother-art of all arts, the 
mother-science of all sciences, — "ars artium, scientia 
scientiarum." And, if he be the greatest bene- 
factor of mankind who has taught the right use of 
the greatest power with which it has pleased God 
to endow human nature, Lord Bacon pre-emi- 
nently deserves that title : for revealing to man 
that the knowledge of nature was the power 
of art, "interpretatio naturae, regnum hominis," he 
disenthralled the human mind, and led it forth 
from its "narrow house" of confinement, to exercise 
and to enjoy the high privileges which have been 
bountifully ordained for it. 



THE DISCOVERY OF INDUCTION. 5 

How Lord Bacon was led to his great discovery, 
the learned seem not to be well agreed. It is, 
however, generally admitted, that it was not, a 
priori, from any metaphysical analysis of his ideas 
concerning the nature of the process, but rather 
from reflecting upon the errors of his predecessors. 
Speculating upon such a subject, we ought to keep 
in mind what has been very properly observed 
of the history of the mechanical arts, and what 
may equally be said of every art connected with the 
immediate wants of mankind, that men are familiar 
with them long before the idea occurs of enume- 
rating or describing them, or even of examining 
very closely the nature and limits of the aid they 
are capable of affording. And accordingly Lord 
Bacon informs us, that although he was the first to 
enter upon this career,* he did not invent any art 
which had not existed before, but, on the contrary, 
that his manner of philosophizing was a natural 
operation of the mind,f which it follows of its own 
accord, unless led astray by the feelings or biased 
by pre-conceived opinions ; and that patient, sober, 
and cautious understandings do sometimes of their 

* Atque in hac re plane Protopirum, et vestigia nullius se- 
cutum, neque haec ipsa cum ullo mortalium communicantem, 
et tamen veram viam constanter ingressum, et ingenium rebus 
submittentem, haec ipsa aliquatenus, (ut existimamus) provex- 
isse. 

•j" Est enim interpretatio, verum et naturale opus mentis, 
demptis its quce obstante 



D THE DISCOVERY OF INDUCTION. 

own natural suggestion, proceed upon it.* Now 
Lord Bacon himself was eminently distinguished 
by this character of mind, and possessing a strong 
natural taste for physical researches, seems to have 
very much exercised himself in them. This was 
also probably very much encouraged by particular 
circumstances. Amongst these may be mentioned 
the state of his health habitually infirm, which, 
rendering him in some degree his own physician, 
had a tendency also to favour such pursuits. His ac- 
curate knowledge of the works of the ancient writers 
on medicine, would seem to give some support to this 
opinion. But whether this be well founded or not, 
he seems to have been at all times more or less 
occupied with one inquiry or another, so that the 
habits of his mind, contrary to the habits of his 
profession, were necessarily inductive. It appears, 
therefore, not improbable, that in making the 
discovery of induction, he only detected the process 
followed by his own reason, and by comparing this 
with the method of the schools, he found it to be 
the only true and correct one. In this way it 
seems reasonable to conclude, that the discovery 
of induction was the result of the method of ex- 
perience ; nor does there seem any other possible 
manner of generalizing and establishing a common 
principle of natural reasoning. 

* Intellectus sibi permissus in ingenio sobrio et patienti et 
gravi (prceserlim si a doctrinis receptis non impedialur) tentat 
nonnihil illam alteram viam, quae recta est. 



NEGLECT OF INDUCTION. 7 

The present state of the arts and sciences, which 
are the fruits of the Baconian philosophy, so 
fully declares the inestimable benefits which it has 
conferred upon the human race, that it may appear 
unreasonable not to rest contented with the pro- 
gress which has already been made under its 
auspices. Perhaps indeed the easy success which 
has attended the use of the inductive method, may 
afford a reason for explaining why the method 
itself has not received those improvements of 
which it is susceptible, and why consequently for 
want of its correct application, many branches of 
knowledge remain comparatively an uncultivated 
waste. For it must certainly be admitted, that 
although all who pretend to the study or to the 
imitation of nature, profess their faith in the philo- 
sophy of experience, only a few observe with 
fidelity the rules and precepts of the inductive 
logic. Indeed so great a latitude do those whose 
pride it is to be called the followers of Bacon, 
allow themselves in the use of his method, and so 
great a diversity do they present in their manner of 
philosophizing, that amongst his disciples many 
various denominations might be distinguished, cer- 
tainly not differing less from each other than 
the Dogmatists, the Methodists, or the Empirics of 
antiquity. Thus to the first might be compared 
the Synthesists of the present day, known by 
their overweening confidence in general principles 
hastily deduced, who prefer attributing effects 



t 

8 DIFFERENT SECTS OF INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHERS. 

to causes already known, but are ever impatient in 
the search of new ones. The epithet which Lord 
Bacon applied to their ancient prototypes, still 
fairly attaches to them, for, from very small ma- 
terials of experience they, like the spider, spin 
their webs of theory from their own entrails. In 
the same manner the modern Specialists are 
faithful representatives of the old Empirics. They 
are equally distinguished by their cautious, if not ob- 
stinate, adherence to particular facts, never venturing 
to draw a conclusion or to follow out a principle. 
They simply collect their store of single cases 
which, like the ant, they use in their original crude 
state, without the elaboration or refinement which 
the mind has the power of imparting. Between 
these two extremes, there are of course many 
other denominations who deviate more or less 
widely from the axioms of their master, but it 
must be confessed that most men lean to the one 
or the other, few in the spirit of true Analysists 
pursuing the safe middle way. And it is indeed 
worthy of remark, that these leading sects, under 
one name or another, may be traced through all 
the history of philosophy, a distinction which for 
wise reasons, may have its foundation in the 
original constitution of the human mind. But 
however this may be, it must under all circum- 
stances be allowed, that such palpable deviations 
from the rules of philosophizing, ought not to 
exist among disciples of the same master ; for, 



LATITUDE IN THE USE OF INDUCTION. 9 

either the inductive philosophy is not a safe 
guide, or its followers give themselves unautho- 
rized license in the use of it. The Specialists, 
indeed, if they strictly adhere to their dogma, 
cannot in fact be said to employ the method of the 
true experience, but rather the method of that art 
which Lord Bacon has called the " experientia 
literata," and which he significantly terms, " saga- 
citas potius et odoratio quaedam venatica, quam 
scientia." 

However strange therefore it may seem, it is still 
not the less true to say, that whilst it is the cha- 
racter of the present age to appeal directly to ex- 
perience, — to observe the spontaneous workings of 
nature, and to ask questions of her when she is 
silent, — it is also distinguished by a remarkable 
latitude in the use of induction, and by a cul- 
pable over-confidence in the powers of natural 
reason. The answers of nature are hastily anti- 
cipated instead of being patiently waited for, or 
heard impatiently and interpreted falsely. But, as 
a very philosophical physician has, with great nicety 
of expression, observed, " la natura non vuol esser 
sopraffatta, vuol, esser sentita; ama di esser conos- 
ciuta, ma e gelosa di esser capita."* A confidence 
in the analytical nature of experiment and the 
success which has been already obtained by it, 
have no doubt, in a great degree, promoted these 

* Cotugno. Spirito della Medicina. 



10 CAUSES OF THE NEGLECT OF INDUCTION. 

loose habits of philosophizing ; but this resource is 
becoming every day more exhausted, and a faithful 
analysis of facts every day more necessary, so 
that it does not seem two much to say, that a 
close and rigorous induction, is at the present 
moment, more called for, to ensure and to advance 
the progress of science, than the continued accu- 
mulation of either observations or experiments. 

It might be well to know something more parti- 
cular of the causes in which this latitude, or rather 
neglect of induction, has originated, and why men 
prefer the rude undisciplined powers of the mind to 
the strength and ease which is derived from their 
cultivation. In the performance of any physical 
operation, men most greedily seize upon any assist- 
ance which the ingenuity of the arts can supply, but 
cannot bear to conform to any rule, however much 
it may contribute either certainty or facility to the 
operations of the mind. The principal reason to be 
assigned for this, must be sought for in the natural 
constitution of the human mind. The wishes and 
the feelings of man lead his understanding. " In- 
tellects humanus luminis sicci non est. Quid 
enim mavult homo verum esse, id potius credit 
Rejecit itaque difficilia ob inquirendi impatientiam ; 
sobria quia coarctant spem ; altiora naturae propter 
superstitionem ; lumen experientiae propter arro- 
gantiam, et fastum, ne videatur mens versari in vi- 
libus et fluxis ; paradoxa propter opinionem vulgi." 
In this aphorism Lord Bacon specifies nearly all 






OBJECTIONS TO A METHOD OF INDUCTION. 11 

the motives why men prefer the vague and unde- 
fined art of their own contrivance, which allows 
them to shape their opinions to their feelings, 
rather than the restraint of a fixed and certain 
method, which checking their hasty assumptions 
forbids them to outstep their data. 

There are, however, many men grey in observa- 
tion, who, though they would be ready to admit 
most fully the prejudicial influence of these causes 
upon the sober exercise of the judgment, would yet 
be disposed to contend, that the natural art of in- 
duction, which is the result of habits of personal 
experience, is far preferable to any regular method 
which either education or the experience of others 
has the power of imparting. Now examining into 
the soundness of this objection and considering 
what it is really worth, it may seem almost unne- 
cessary to remind those who are of this way of 
thinking, that there is no difference of opinion as 
regards the nature of the instrument which is 
to be used, but only as regards the best way of 
acquiring the use of it. The most consummate 
practical tact, which has been beautifully ex- 
plained to be the result of "the intuitive ha- 
bits of silent induction," is precisely a self-taught 
or natural method of experience, and, although 
it must be allowed that there is an adroitness and 
ease to be acquired by practice, in the use of even 
the most perfect and finished instrument, which no 



12 OBJECTIONS TO A METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

instruction can convey, still it does seem unac- 
countable for that reason alone to prefer the home- 
made tool of one's own contrivance to the most 
correct instrument which the ingenuity of man has 
been capable of producing. It is the husbandman 
who prefers his own rude flail to the convenient im- 
plements of modern agriculture. And, were it pos- 
sible that every man could prepare for himself a 
method for making a right use of his experience, 
sufficiently well adapted to his purpose, it must not 
be forgotten, that it is only after many years of labour 
and disappointment that he acquires it, through error 
and failure as well as success, of all which his tact 
may be considered the last result of the eliminating 
, process of repeated inductions. Thus he only be- 
comes sagacious and expert at the expense of much 
toil and many sacrifices, and frequently, as in the 
case of the statesman, the legislator, and the phy- 
sician ,* at others cost as well as his own. Nor do 
the disadvantages of preferring this home-spun me- 
thod of a personal induction to one common prin- 
ciple available to every one and applicable to all 
circumstances, terminate here, for it is only at the 
eve of life, that this talent has reached its full ma- 
turity, and it must necessarily die with each indivi- 
dual, without contributing to the common benefits 
of his fellow creatures. 

* Aliorum salute, aliorum interitu, perniciosa discernentem a 
salutaribus. 



INDUCTION OPPOSED TO PRACTICAL TACT. 13 

There are no doubt some, however, who may be in- 
clined to argue on this side of the question from a 
notion that a regular method of induction is oppo- 
sed to the developement of practical tact. To a 
certain extent perhaps this may be ^the case. As, 
for sake of comparison, one who, in describing a 
circle, has never accustomed himself to make use of 
a pair of compasses, may describe it more accu- 
rately with his naked hand, than the person who 
has habituated himself to depend upon their assist- 
ance. I am however disposed to think, that few 
will be found to urge such a reason against the 
use of compasses, or any other mechanical contri- 
vance, which enables an operation to be performed 
with safety or facility. But if there may be found 
some who would push their opinion to this extreme 
case, they would not be more inconsistent than 
those who object to teaching and cultivating a re- 
gular method of correct and careful induction by 
which men may profit by their common experience, 
but who willingly confide in individual resources, 
which only a few possess, and of which a still 
smaller number know how to avail themselves. 

But though it be impossible to allege any good 
reason for neglecting the cultivation of induction, 
some excuse might be found in the imperfect state 
in which we now possess it. It may reasonably be 
pleaded that it is by no means adapted to the present 
state of our knowledge, and that its application to 
many subjects is a matter of the greatest difficulty. 



14 IMPERFECT STATE OF INDUCTION. 

That the inductive philosophy was left by its 
great expounder in an unfinished state,, must cer- 
tainly be allowed. Since his time the greatest 
changes have taken place in almost every depart- 
ment of science and of art, but without any corres- 
ponding modification in the process of induction. 
Every one, therefore, in order to make a proper use 
of it, is obliged to mould and adapt it to his own 
case. It is also generally admitted, that Lord 
Bacon had not a very accurate notion of the boun- 
daries which confine philosophical investigations, 
but, that directing his views to objects beyond the 
reach of human knowledge, he encumbered his pre- 
cepts with superfluous and embarrassing rules. In- 
deed it cannot be denied that his rules are more 
particularly intended for the discovery of those 
things which philosophers of later times consider 
impossible for the human mind to compass, than of 
those which come within the bounds of rational 
and attainable knowledge. Thus the discovery of 
the essential forms of things and of their abstract 
qualities, were the subjects to which he devoted 
his more particular care, and although the principle 
for conducting the discovery of these, does not 
differ from that suited to the investigation of phy- 
sical causes, yet this circumstance tended consi- 
derably to embarrass the process with some obscure 
terms and unnecessary distinctions which may no 
doubt have raised an impediment to the general 
use of his method. " If," as observes Mr. Du- 



EFFECTS OF NEGLECT OF INDUCTION. 15 

gald Stewart, "he had perceived as clearly as 
Barrow, Berkeley and Hume, and many others 
have done since his time, that there is not a 
single instance in which we are able to trace 
a necessary connexion between two successive 
events, or to explain in what manner the one 
follows the other, as an indispensable consequence, 
he would have been naturally led to state his 
principles in a form far more concise and metho- 
dical, and to lay aside much of that scholastic 
jargon by which his meaning is occasionally ob- 
scured." What form might have suggested itself to 
his powerful and penetrating mind, impressed with 
the conviction of our inability to remove the veil 
which nature has thrown over the mysterious 
union of cause and effect, we may not now conjec- 
ture, but it must ever remain matter of deep and 
serious regret, that the same mind which developed 
and explained the great principles of the philo- 
sophy, should not have also laid down the definite 
rules of its application as an art. 

Each of the foregoing causes have no doubt 
had their full share in giving rise to a latitude 
in the use of induction equally incompatible with 
the interests of science and the usefulness of art. 
It may, however, be worth while to consider the 
particular manner in which this has operated, and 
the different effects it has had upon the different 
branches of knowledge. 

It is very plain, that all the different branches of 



16 MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES. 

knowledge do not stand equally in need of in- 
duction. In those sciences which admit of the 
application of the mathematics, if the adaption of 
a formula be made correctly, the possibility of 
error is removed. The method of the mathematics 
is so strictly logical, that so soon as any class of 
phenomena is represented by them, their relations 
to each other are precisely determined, and the 
consequences deduced are necessarily true ; so that 
any fact predicted by the calculus is more certainly 
true, than the same fact known either by ob- 
servation or induction. <( Le calcul commande 
pour ainsi dire a la nature " because, " il en de- 
termine les phenomenes plus exactment que 
l'observation ne peut les faire connoitre."* This 
department of knowledge is therefore, in the main, 
fortified against the false steps of induction, and 
has consequently suffered comparatively little from 
its abuse. 

It is also the nature of experiment, although 
in a different way, to render those branches of 
science which proceed upon it, as also the arts 
which are only a repetition of experiments, relatively 
independent of the inductive process. For, in the 
first place, by means of experiment, a kind of 
practical induction is carried on, almost visibly 
submitted to the perception of the senses, which 
promotes and suggests conclusions as it were 

* Cuvier. Regne Animal. 



EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCES. 17 

mechanically, and checks the errors to which the 
abstract operations of the mind are constantly 
exposed. And, in the second place, the great 
and leading advantage of experiment, is the 
power which it bestows of creating facts, as it were, 
at pleasure, by which means the mind may select 
only those luminous facts, called by Lord Bacon, 
prerogative instances. A few of these, he tells us, 
speak more plainly than a multitude of common 
facts, so that a consequence may be deduced in- 
ductively from the comparison of a few examples 
by a simple intuitive act of the judgment.* Here, 
therefore, there is little room for an abuse of induc- 
tion, and it is, consequently, in this department of 
knowledge that the greatest progress has been 
made by the method of experience. 

But when pure observation becomes exclusively the 
purveyor of our knowledge, the case is far other- 
wise. Here we must accept, without choice or 
selection, whatever nature or accident may please 
to present.f There is no power of varying their 

* Sunt enim instantice prerogativis istis insignitae et donatae 
animce instar inter vulgares instantias comparenti : et, ut ab initio 
diximus, paucae illarum sunt vice multarum. 

•j* Observationes fiunt spectando id quod natura per se ipsam 
exhibet ; hujusmodi sunt observationes pertinentes ad astrono- 
miam et historiam naturalem. 

Experimenta fiunt ponendo naturam in eas circumstantias in 
quibus debeat agere et nobis ostendere id quod quaerimus ; quod 
pertinet ad physicam experimentalem. Porrd et ferro et igni 
utimur, et dissolvimus per vim compagem corporum, potissimum 
in chemia, et naturam quodammodo velut torquentes, cogimus 
revelare sua secreta. — Boscovich. 

C 



18 SCIENCES OF OBSERVATION. 

conditions, or of changing their combinations,— no 
means of decomposing them practically, of adding 
a circumstance, or of withdrawing a circumstance, 
and observing the changes which follow. Yet, 
unless our knowledge is to be limited to the simple 
history of individual facts, all these operations 
must be performed by the mind. By a kind of 
intellectual chemistry, observations must be reduced 
to their elementary constituents, and again formed 
into new combinations, before they can give extent 
or comprehensiveness to our knowledge. It is here, 
therefore, that the aid of induction is so urgently 
called for, and that the neglect, or abuse of it, 
leads to consequences so baneful to the progress of 
science. " In by far the greater number of in- 
stances the appearances of nature are dependent 
upon a variety of different laws, all of which are 
often combined together in producing one single 
event. And whenever such a combination hap- 
pens, although each law may take place with the 
most complete uniformity, it is likely that nothing 
but confusion will strike the mere observer. A 
collection of such results, therefore, would not 
advance us one step in the knowledge of nature, 
nor would it enable us to anticipate the issue of one 
new experiment. In cases of this description, before 
we can avail ourselves of our past experience, we 
must employ our reasoning powers in comparing a 
variety of instances together, in order to discover, 
by a sort of analysis or decomposition, the simple 



WASTE OF EXPERIENCE. 19 

laws which are concerned in the phenomena under 
consideration ; after which, we may proceed safely 
in determining, a priori, what the result will be of 
any hypothetical combination of these, whether 
total or partial."* 

It is easy to understand the untoward influence 
which the want of a severe method of induction 
has had upon those departments of knowledge 
which are almost exclusively fed by observations, 
and the obstacles which it has opposed to their 
progress. A comparison of the state of these 
sciences before and since the discovery of induction, 
with the state of the experimental sciences in the 
same periods, would place this matter in the 
clearest point of view, It is however time to 
draw these introductory observations to a con- 
clusion, and we must, therefore, content ourselves 
with pointing out a few only of the more preju- 
dicial consequences which have resulted from the 
neglect of method. 

The first of these which may be specified, is 
the great waste of experience of which it has been 
the cause. For want of a proper use of induc- 
tion to extract the knowledge to be derived from the 
particular facts, which time and occasion are con- 
stantly producing, years of experience are cast 
away, and man arrives at the end of his weary 
labours with a burdensome load, which memory is 

* Stewart's Philosophy of the Human Mind. 

c 2 



20 FALSE FACTS. 

now ill able to carry, instead of a few well 
assorted principles which would give strength 
rather than heap incumbrance. What is true of 
the life and experience of the individual, is true 
of the common life and experience of mankind. 
The world grows old in the accumulation of facts, 
but not of experience. Observations are piled 
upon observations without order or arrangement, 
and the mind, wearied and exhausted with the con- 
templation of the chaos, becomes indifferent by 
disappointment, and they are at last thrown aside 
or forgotten. 

But the neglect of induction not only causes a 
waste of experience, and in this way embarrasses 
the progress of knowledge, it affords the oppor- 
tunity of establishing positive errors, by giving a 
currency to false facts, (as they are called,) and 
to false doctrines. It is plain that if observations 
were analyzed and examined by a sifting process of 
the mind, the true and the false being compared 
with each other, the incongruity of the latter would 
soon betray their parentage. But, for want of some 
method to place facts in their natural correspon- 
dence with each other, there is no check upon the 
insincerity of the observer, and, consequently, the 
chance of reasoning upon false data is wonderfully 
increased.* 

* Ma v'ha di piu ; siccome contro ? 1 fatto, non si vuol replica, e 
di nessun fatto si vuole Y analisi ; cosi 1' impostura, la menzogna, 



FALSE DOCTRINES. 21 

The same neglect of induction which exposes 
the mind to be misled by false data, exposes it also 
to false doctrines from true facts, by allowing them 
to be placed in false relations. Thus accidental 
are assumed to be constant conjunctions, precursive 
and consecutive events are erroneously connected 
together, and on these false relations, principles are 
established, from which flow errors in opinion and 
errors in practice, as well in science as in art. 

But what may perhaps be regarded as not the 
least unhappy consequence which has sprung 
from the careless manner in which inductions have 
been conducted, is the neglect of the method 
itself. For, like an instrument which has been 
thrown aside, it has become stiff and rusty from 
disuse, and the art of applying it having ceased to 
be cultivated, it has lost all those improvements 
which occasion and convenience are ever sug- 
gesting. Enough, however, has already been said 
to show what importance is attached to this parti- 
cular consequence, and enough also, it is hoped, to 
make obvious the necessity of directing more at- 
tention than has of late been given to those ame- 
liorations of which the method may be susceptible. 
Nor can it be necessary to urge any further the 
expediency of its constant and rigorous application 

la mala fede entrano impunemente, oltra I'ignoranza, come prin- 
cipali elementi nella composizione de' fatti medici. Rasori. This 
censure is not more applicable to medicine than to the other 
sciences of observation. 



22 CONCLUSION. 

in all branches of knowledge, and in all operations 
of art. For it is only by the general use of such 
an instrument that we can expect to be able to 
distinguish assertions from facts, to elicit the less 
striking relations which bind the different phe- 
nomena of nature, or to disentangle the thread 
which connects them all together. It is only by 
the universal use of such an instrument that know- 
ledge can continue to procedein one even, unbroken, 
course, that art can become science and science 
generate art, and that the experience of every 
individual, and of all ages, can concentrate their 
combined force upon the one great; object, the disco- 
very of Truth, — the entire revelation of Nature. 



CHAPTER I. 

OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION, PERFORMED BY 

TABULA INVENIENDI. 



" Venit ei itaque in mentem posse aliquid simplicius proponi ; quod in 
vulgus non editum, saltern tamen ad rei tam salutaris abortum arcendum satis 
fortasse esse possit. Atque diu et acriter, rem cogitanti, et perpendenti, ante 
omnia visum est ei, tabulas inveniendi sive legitimcp. inquisitionis formulas^ 
hoc est, materiem particularium ad opus intellectiis ordinatam, in aliquibus 
subjectis proponi, tanquam ad exemplum, et operis descriptionem fere visi- 
bilem" Cogitata et Visa. 



Having been much accustomed to have recourse 
to the common expedient of tables to assist me in 
various researches, it frequently occurred to me, 
that it might be possible by means of them to 
carry on a complete process of induction ; but I 
found, that, making use of them in the ordinary 
way, any process of induction which could be 
performed by them, was little better than a bare 
enumeration of particulars ; for they afforded no 
assistance either in discovering or in establishing the 
relations which existed between the circumstances 
of different facts. When, however, after repeated 
disappointments, I combined with the plan of tables 
the method of representing the circumstances or/ 
particulars of facts by signs, T soon perceived that 
the most accurate induction might be effected by 



24 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

them ; and with many facilities and advantages of 
which the usual medium of words does not allow. 

The plan which I adopted for combining both 
these means together, and which I am now about 
to explain, consisted in placing a number of columns 
collaterally, corresponding to the number of in- 
stances or individual facts, which were to be 
examined ||, and a broader column f parallel to 
these, in which was written down vertically all the 
circumstances, or particulars of the different in- 
stances. Having appropriated a column to each 
instance, as the circumstances of the instances 
were written down in the broad column, signs were 
placed opposite to them, in the columns of the 
instances in which they were found. This process, 
the translation of circumstances into signs, (the 
principle of which is founded on the conjunction 
of circumstances,) was performed in the following 
manner. Each instance being denoted by a letter 
of the alphabet, taking A to represent the first, B, 
the second, and so forth ; as the circumstances of 
the first instance were written down in the broad 
column,f or column of circumstances, (in the order 
in which they presented themselves,) the sign A 
was placed opposite to each, in the column of the 
first instance. In the same manner, in the second 
instance, for every circumstance which had already 

|| \ Vide Form I. a. Classification by Affirmative Circum- 
stances. 



TABULA INVENIENDI. 25 

been found in the first instance, A was placed in 
the column of the second instance. Such circum- 
stances as had not been found in the first instance, 
were added to the column of circumstances, and 
the sign B was placed against them, in the column 
of the second instance. In like manner, in the 
third instance, the circumstances, the same as 
those of the two preceding instances, were de- 
noted in the column of the third instance by 
their signs, A or B, respectively ; and such circum- 
stances of the third instance as were not found in 
either of the preceding, being first noted down in 
the column of circumstances, were denoted by a 
new sign, viz., that of the instance C. And so on 
in all succeeding instances, the same circumstances 
recurring continued to be denoted by their original 
sign, and every new circumstance, being first in- 
serted in the column of circumstances, by the sign 
of the instance which it first occurred. 

The operation having been completed after this 
manner, every circumstance being represented by its 
sign, in its proper place, and in its proper instance, it 
was obvious that the relations of the signs to each 
other expressed the relations of the circumstances 
to each other, and that all the circumstances 
denoted by the same signs, were related to each 
other, more or less closely, for they had all co- 
existed in the particular instances, more or less fre- 
quently. It was, therefore, only necessary to 
ascertain the constancy of this relation, and the 



26 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

position of the circumstances, antecedent or conse- 
cutive, in order to place them in their natural 
correspondence to each other, either as cause or 
effect, as effects of a common cause, or causes of 
a common effect. Pursuing this idea, I proceeded 
to collect together into another parallel column,^f, all 
the signs from the columns of instances, arranging 
all the same signs together, each in their proper 
vertical line. On considering the nature of this 
last operation I soon perceived that I was carrying 
on a process of induction, differing, however, from 
the ordinary process in this, — that not only were 
the circumstances common to all the instances 
brought in under their common sign, but the sub- 
ordinate or special circumstances were also brought 
together each under their signs. 

As the affixing and assorting of the signs is 
determined by the presence of circumstances, this 
process has been called the classification by affirma- 
tive circumstances. The manner of performing it 
will be better understood by inspection of the 
table. 

If Vide Form I. a. 



TABULAE 1NVENIENDI. 



27 



Form I. a. CLASSIFICATION BY AFFIRMATIVE CIRCUMSTANCES. 



* 


11 


Classification 




" 


of 
the Signs. 


- 


1 _. 


> 


>' 


— 1 
> 


_ 

> 


> 


d 


X 


X 


3 


>< 




> 


> 
X 


> 

X 


< 
— 1 

*1 


xi 
X 


Circumstances. 


A 
A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 

&c. 


A 
A~ 


B C 

a~;a 


D 


E 

a~ 


F 
A 


G 
A 


H 


1 


J 


K 


L 


M 


N 





P 


Q 

A~ 


R 

A 


S 
A 


T 

A 


t 




A 


A 




A 




A 


A 




A 


~B 












A 


A A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




A 


B l 


B 


1 




B 






B 




B 






B 




A 

A 


A 
C~ 
A 


"c 

A 




A 










A 


A 




A A 


A 

A 


A 

A 


A 

A~ 


A 
C~ 
A 


A 


A 

A 


C~ 


A 


A 


A 
~A 


A 
A 








C 












A~ 


A~ 


C 
A 


A 


A 


C 
A 




A 






A 
















A 




A 




A 








A 






A 














A 


A 














F 
















F 








F 








F 












F 






B 
















B 




B 








B 










B 






B 


























H 
















H 


H 








H 










H 








A 
















A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 








c 
















C 






C 






C 








C 










C 


C 


















K 




















A 


K 




K 






K 












A 
















A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 








c 


15 














C 






C 








C 




D 














C 


C 












D 








A 










A 




— 


— 


— 




A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




A 


A 




A 


A 


A 




A 


A 


A 


A 


c 

M 


"c 

M 






B 




B 




B 








B 






B 












B 
















F 
















F 








F 


















c 
















C 






C 


















~B 


— 


— 


— 




— 


H 
"M 




B 


— 










H 


H 








H 




B 




B 








B 






B 




B 
M 


1 








— 










B 










H 
















H 


H 








|H 








H 
























B 


















B 




1 




B 


•■ 






F 














F 














IF 








F 




1 1 




I 












T 
























1 1 










T 



* The subject of investigation may be inserted in this open space. 

t By leaving some blank lines between the circumstances of the first instances, the circumstances 
of the succeeding instances may be placed in a more natural order. 



28 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

On examining into the nature of the operation to 
which the signs, and, consequently, the circum- 
stances, had been subjected by means of the pre- 
ceding table, it was easy to be perceived, that 
besides the relation indicated between all the cir- 
cumstances comprehended under the same sign, 
which has been already noticed, any relation 
between different signs or their corresponding 
circumstances, was also negatived; for each suc- 
ceeding class of circumstances was excluded by 
those preceding it. Thus the class A of circum- 
stances having been found present when the class 
B of circumstances was absent, according to the 
principle* laid down by Lord Bacon, the class A 
excludes the class B.f In the same manner, the 
classes A and B exclude the class C, and so on, the 
other classes successively. Therefore, as it is the 
effect of this process of classification to bring toge- 
ther under the same sign all those circumstances 
which have co-existed, so is it to exclude from 

* Itaque naturae facienda est prorsus solutio et separatio ; non 
per ignem certe sed per mentem, tanquam per ignem divinum. 
Est itaque inductionis verae opus primum (quatenus ad inveni- 
endas formas) rejectio sive exclusio naturarum singularum, quae 
non inveniuntur in aliqua instantia, ubi natura data adest. Aut 
inveniuntur in aliqua instantia ubi natura data abest, aut inveni- 
untur in aliqua instantia crescere cum natura data decrescat, aut 
decrescere cum natura data crescat. 

•j" To use the language of Lord Bacon, A is the representative 
of instances absentice in proximo of the circumstances designated 
byB. 



TABULA INVENIENDI. 29 

each other, and to distinguish by different signs, 
those which are independent of each other. 

It can scarcely be necessary to observe, that, 
though it is the principle of this and of all classifi- 
cations, that the succeeding signs and their cir- 
cumstances are excluded by those preceding, the 
converse of this is not true. The circumstances 
of the class A are not excluded by any or by all of 
the other classes, although these may mutually 
exclude each other. Thus the characters of the 
genus may exclude the discriminative peculiarities of 
the species, of the varieties, and of individuals, but 
none of these last can exclude the genus, though 
they may exclude one another. 

Although all the circumstances comprehended 
under the same sign, are in some degree related to 
each other, it cannot readily escape observation, 
that there must be among them some which are 
merely concomitant or accidental, (as for example 
all the special circumstances of the first instance 
must be concealed under the common sign A,) and 
therefore, until every such circumstance is rejected 
from each class, the induction is obviously imper- 
fect. Now it is possible to proceed in two differ- 
ent ways, directly opposite to each other, in order 
to determine which are the circumstances in this 
predicament. The classification may be extended 
to a greater number of instances, by a method 
hereafter to be explained,* and observing those cir- 

* Vide infra, Rectification of the Signs. 



30 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

cumstances of each class which constantly recur- 
ring together, show a constancy of relation, the 
circumstances may be rejected, which do not recur 
together in any proportion to the number of in- 
stances. For a little consideration will show, that 
the instances which make up the complement of 
the whole number of instances, negative the cir- 
cumstances which are thus defective in instances. 
And indeed this method of extending the classifi- 
cation to a greater number of instances, must 
very frequently be had recourse to, in order to 
make the classes strong enough to bear a process 
of further exclusion. And on some occasions, 
when the instances are very numerous, and the 
deficiency very considerable, it may be the shortest 
way of proceeding, and sufficiently correct for 
ordinary purposes. But the method which is more 
philosophical and more strictly correct, is to reject 
those circumstances which are deficient in their 
number of instances, on the evidence of individual 
instances, in which the greater number of the 
circumstances of the class are found, except those 
which are to be excluded * 

As the affixing of the signs in this process is 
determined by the absence of circumstances, it has 
been called the classification by negative circum- 
stances. The inspection of the table will easily 
suggest the manner of performing it. 

* To repeat the language of the Novum Organon, on the 
evidence of instantice absentice in proximo. 



31 



Form II. CLASSIFICATION BY NEGATIVE CIRCUMSTANCES. 



CLASSf.A 


03 

S3 


Circumstances. 


Instances. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII 


* 


















« 


At 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




*ll 


M\ 


A 


A 


A 


b 


A 


A 


A 




c 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




d 


b 


A 


A 


A 


b 


A 


A 


A 




e 


b 


A 
A 


e 


A 


b 


A 


A 


A 




f 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




g 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




h 


6 


A 


e 


A 


b 


A 


A 


h 




i 


b 


A 


e 


A 


b 


A 


A 


h 




J 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




k 


b 


A 


e 


A 


b 


A 


A 


h 




I 


A 


I 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




m 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




n 


A 


I 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 







A 


I 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




P 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 
~1± 




q 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




r 


b | A 


V 


A 


b 


A 


A 


h 




s 


b i A 


e 


A 


b 


A 


A 




t 


A 


I 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


O 

.2 a 

rt fee 

•a <*> 

o 


Class 

V 

to 

a> 

43 1 
O \ 


A 








A 




A 


A 




b 


b 








b 








e 






e 












h 
















h 


I 




I 
















b 


I 


e 


A 


b 


A 


A 


h 



* The circumstances of the class to be inserted in these blank spaces. 



32 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

The circumstances of any class, (by which is of 
course meant any number of circumstances de- 
noted by the same sign,) may be submitted to the 
operation of this table in the following manner. 
As the instances (which may be either the same 
from which the classes of the previous table had 
been formed, or new instances, containing few or 
more of the circumstances of the class under 
analysis), are examined one after another, for any 
circumstance of the class found in any instance, the 
sign of the class must be placed opposite that 
instance in the column of the circumstance,f and 
so on for all the succeeding instances. But when 
in an instance any circumstance belonging to a 
class is found defective, the sign of that instance, || 
instead of the sign of the class, is to be placed in 
the column of the defective circumstance ; and 
this defective circumstance must retain the same 
sign in all the subsequent instances. In this 
way, a second classification, and a second pro- 
cess of exclusion is established; for, whenever a 
circumstance of a class is found deficient, the sign 
of the class being replaced by the sign of the 
instance in which it is first found deficient, it be- 
comes excluded from the class on the evidence of 
the instance or instances in which it may be found 
wanting. After the circumstances have been com- 
pared in this way, in all the different instances, and 

f || Vide Form II. Classification by Negative Circumstances. 



TABULiE INVENIENDI. 33 

the signs placed accordingly, the whole classifica- 
tion must be corrected at the foot of the table, by 
substituting for the signs of the circumstances, 
those signs which the circumstances have assumed 
in the particular instances; so that those circum- 
stances only which retain the sign of the class, con- 
tinue to belong to it. These, as it were, continue to 
affirm their relation to each other, whilst the others 
having received different signs, are removed from it, 
and, as it were, deny the relation, except under certain 
combinations of circumstances. It is therefore the 
nature of this operation to decompose the classes, 
formed by the first table, into subordinate classes, 
either partially or entirely ; and this has accordingly 
led to the distinction of classes and sub-classes of 
circumstances. 

It is however necessary to observe, that the prin- 
ciple of classification of this table is quite the 
reverse of that of the first. In the first table, 
the classes are determined by the presence of cir- 
cumstances not found in any previous instance, 
whilst, in this table, the sub-classes are formed by 
the absence of circumstances which had been 
present in the previous instances. Therefore, 
though as in the first table, the classes do here 
also exclude each other, they do so in a con- 
trary direction ; the signs of the principal class being 
excluded by those of the sub-classes. Hence it is 
evident, that the method of exclusion which may 

D 



34 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

be performed by these tables, is double, and, as it 
were, bilateral, and that this principle of induction, 
admitting no contradictory instance, fulfils the 
condition which Lord Bacon requires; as far at 
least as the relations of circumstances can be de- 
termined by the constancy of their conjunctions. 

There is a facility attendant upon the use of this 
table, which is worthy of being remarked. Besides 
completing the process of exclusion, it saves the 
trouble of selecting instances suited to the differ- 
ent circumstances; for, amongst instances which 
are defective in circumstances, it finds out those 
which are negative of any particular circumstance, 
and thus, adapting the instance to the circumstance, 
any particular knowledge of the circumstances of 
each individual instance is rendered unnecessary. 

This table by a trifling modification becomes also 
susceptible of another advantage which deserves 
attention, for, as well as excluding circumstances 
from a class to which they do not constantly 
belong, it may be made to show the combination 
of circumstances, or the condition, under which they 
are either conjoined or separated from a class. Thus 
suppose that, besides having columns for only the 
circumstances of the class, other columns be ap- 
propriated or reserved for circumstances occurring 
collaterally,* (such circumstances being denoted 

* Vide infra, Chap. iv. Methodus Contabulandi. 



TABULAE INVENIENDI. 35 

by signs in the usual way, according to the in- 
stances in which they first appear,) it is plain that 
the signs will indicate the relations which may 
exist between the circumstances of a class and 
the collateral circumstances, and, in this way, it 
may be determined why a circumstance belongs 
occasionally to a class, and why, at other times, it 
is separated from it. 

But though these tables afford the means of 
determining most accurately the relations of cir- 
cumstances to each other, as far as can be ascer- 
tained by the constancy of their conjunctions, me- 
diate or immediate, it is well known that a source 
of fallacy lies concealed under this, and therefore 
other criteria are necessary for determining these 
relations. The chief of these is the mutual mo- 
difications, or affections, which circumstances show, 
when they are in relation with each other. This is 
the object of the tabula graduum of Lord Bacon, 
and on it is founded another principle of exclu- 
sion.* For it might certainly be objected to the 
method of induction which has just been explained, 
that, though the signs do indeed express the absence 
and presence of circumstances, and the classifica- 
tions perform a process of exclusion accordingly, 

* Omnino sequitur ut non recipiatur aliqua natura pro vera 
forma, nisi perpetuo decrescat quando natura ipsa decrescit, et 
similitur perpetuo augeatur quando natura ipsa avgetur, 

D 2 



36 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

the degrees, modes, and modifications of the cir- 
cumstances, are left out of the account, and, hence, 
the evidence of the connexion between circum- 
stances which co-exist, derived from their reci- 
procal variations, is neither made available to com- 
plete the exclusion, or to confirm the induction. 

This very important part of every method of 
induction may, however, be fulfilled by a very 
simple expedient, which seems quite competent for 
every purpose that can be required of it. It 
consists in placing over the sign of any circum- 
stance which presents itself under any modifica- 
tion, the sign proper to the instance in which this 
modification is found. In order to avoid a confu- 
sion of signs, the corresponding letter of the Greek 
alphabet, may be used instead of the Roman letter. 
Thus suppose a circumstance A recurs under a 
modification in the instance D, this will be ex- 
pressed by a*. If, therefore, the modification of 
the circumstance a^ is of sufficient importance to 
induce any change in any other circumstance with 
which it may be in relation, there will of course be 
found other circumstances, in the same instance, 
with signs of modifications, or there will be some 
new combination of the signs, or some signs 
absent or present, out of the usual order. And 
therefore, where circumstances under the same 
signs do not, by their signs, express such mutual 
affections or modifications, they must be excluded 



tabulae inveniendi. 37 

from having any constancy of relation affirmed of 
each other. 

And this seems a proper place to remind the reader, 
that the signs considered alone, and without refer- 
ence to the circumstances, express relations, and 
not things. The circumstances which they signify 
must be found by referring to the column of cir- 
cumstances, but the relations which the circum- 
stances have to one another, are entirely expressed 
and shown by the signs. Now, by adding to the signs, 
either accents, prefixes, affixes, or suffixes, after the 
usage of grammarians, the signs might be made to 
express every possible relation which can exist be- 
tween different things or circumstances, and, in 
short, might be converted into a perfect language 
of relations. 



To recapitulate, having by the first process, the 
classification by affirmative circumstances, arranged 
and assorted the circumstances of all the instances, 
and formed them into classes, and having, by the 
second process of exclusion, or classification by nega- 
tive circumstances, rejected from the classes all such 
circumstances as are not found constantly to belong 
to them, the circumstances which remain of each 
class, may be collected and arranged together. Not 
having been able, by the evidence of any instance, 
or individual fact, to separate these circumstances 



38 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

from each other, or from their class, it is allowed to 
conclude that they are connected with each other by 
some natural relation, either as cause or effect of 
each other, as causes of a common effect, or effects 
of a common cause.* This relation is expressed here 
by the sign of the class. When the nature of this 
relation can be ascertained or explained, we are in 
possession of the meaning of the sign, and may 
substitute the one for the other. If that relation 
be referrable to any law, or general principle 
already known, our knowledge of it ceases to be 
empirical, but, if it continues isolated from any 
known law or principle, our knowledge continues 
empirical, and therefore the sign conveys as much 
meaning as any words expressive of the relation. 
Science is full of examples of the gradual conversion 
of empirical into what is called rational know- 
ledge, but it is probable there may never be a 
nobler illustration than that which was afforded, 
when the laws of Kepler were merged by Newton 
in the general theory of gravitation. 



* When we have carried the decomposition as far as we can, 
we are entitled to consider this simplest combination of indis- 
pensable conditions, as the physical cause of the event. 
When thus by comparing a number of cases, agreeing in some 
circumstances, but differing in others, and all attended with the 
same result, a philosopher connects as a general law of nature, 
the event with its physical cause, he is said to proceed by the 
method of induction. — Stewart 's Philosophy of the Human Mind. 



TABULA INVENIENDI. 39 

The classes thus reduced as it were to their last 
terms or elements, may, with their sub-classes, for 
sake of perspicuity, be arranged together in the fol- 
lowing table, each under their respective signs, by 
which means every circumstance may be found in 
its proper place. And as this presents a complete 
and comprehensive view of the result of the whole 
process, by which all the circumstances or parti- 
culars stand assorted together, according to their 
natural relations and affinities, it has been called 
the form of Synthesis, being the proper preparation 
for that operation. 



40 



OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
Form III. SYNTHESIS. 



* Classes. 


* Sub-Classes. 


it 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f,#c. 


A. 




t 












B. 




a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f,$c. 














C. 




a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f,*c 














D. 




a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f,&c. 














E. 




a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f,$c. 















* Vide supra, Form II. 

t The circumstances of the classes to be inserted here, each following 
their respective signs. 

U The circumstances of the sub-classes to be inserted here, each in their 
proper class, and under their proper signs. 



TABULA INVENIENDL 41 

The arrangement and distribution of the results 
of any analysis of particular facts, which is made 
by means of the preceding table, allows at once to 
be perceived what circumstances cannot be se- 
parated from each other, what are conjoined toge- 
ther only under certain combinations, and what 
cannot exist together. It may thus serve many 
very useful purposes, by showing at once all the 
bearings of the circumstances to each other; as 
well in facilitating the further progress of any in- 
vestigation, as in directing, with more certainty and 
precision, the practical application of general prin- 
ciples to individual cases. 

There can be no difficulty in understanding, 
that, although circumstances may, by this process of 
classification, be placed in different classes, yet 
very intimate relations may exist between them, 
their conjunction or separation only depending on 
the presence or absence of some other conditional 
circumstance. By referring to the classifications, 
or, if necessary, to the instances themselves, the 
circumstance or circumstances constituting the 
condition, may easily be discovered ; and, by in- 
specting this table and observing their position 
and bearings, it will be possible to determine 
whether the condition be constant or occasional. 
In this manner, a circumstance which is isolated, 
may be restored to a class, or a particular class or 
group of circumstances, may, subject to such a con- 
dition, be placed in a class more general ; and in the 



42 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

same manner, also a sort of equation may be found 
between different classes, or between circumstances 
of different classes, allowing us, for instance, to say 
B + D=A, &c. &c. 

This power of finding the conditions under which 
different circumstances are conjoined together, or 
by which they are united to or separated from 
different classes, gives, as it were, the faculty of 
creating hypothetical instances or individual cases, 
and of forming new combinations from the elements 
to which the facts have been reduced by the de- 
composing process of exclusion. In this way, it 
may be said, that a kind of visible analysis of the 
facts having been performed, much in the same 
way as the chemist in his laboratory reduces differ- 
ent substances to their elementary ingredients, new 
compounds may also be formed from them synthe- 
tically, according to the order of the affinities 
which have been found to exist among them.* 

There is also another advantage derived from 
presenting the results of any analysis in the com- 
prehensive manner of this table, for, the sub- 
ordinate conclusions being placed in their proper 
relation to the principal, by comparing the abstract 
of one induction with that of another, they may be 
both put in correspondence, and thus the rela- 
tions of one series of facts being connected with 



* Sed naturam re vera persecet, et corporum virtu tes et actus 
eorumque leges,, in materia determinata, inveniat. 



TABULAE INVENIENDI. 43 

those of another, the whole chain of relations 
becomes lengthened and extended in every direc- 
tion. 

Lord Bacon informs us in different passages of 
his works, how fully he was aware of the difficulties 
which every one has experienced in practice, 
when he endeavours to apply general conclusions 
to particular cases ; the removal of the special- 
ties and individual peculiarities leaving such a 
chasm between the general principle and the 
particular case, and placing us, as it were, at 
such a distance from our object,* that frequently 
chance has as much influence as design in deter- 
mining the success of the application. We learn 
therefore from the general outline of his plan that 
he did not consider the raising of general principles 
as the whole of the interpretation of nature ; 
on the contrary, that he intended to give not only 
a descending as well as an ascending scale of princi- 
ples, but also rules for reducing principles to prac- 

* " Solent autem homines naturam tanquam ex praealta turri et 
a longe despicere, et circa generalia nimium occupari ; quando si 
descendere placuerit, et ad particularia accedere, resque ipsas 
attentius et diligentius inspicere, magis vera et utilis fieret com- 
prehensio." It is for this reason that he places all his hopes and 
confidence in what he calls intermediate principles, or axioms, 
which connect general conclusions with individual instances. 
" At media sunt axiomata ilia vera et solida et viva, in quibus 
humanae res et fortunae sitae sunt : et supra haec quoque, tandem 
ipsa ilia genalissima, talia scilicet, quae non abstracta sint, sed 
per haec media vere limitantur." 



44 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

tice ; by which, however, nothing could be meant 
but some intermediate steps or links which might 
connect the general conclusion with particular 
cases. Now it appears to me that some provision is 
made for these objects by this method of induction. 
For, by preserving all the subclasses, and specifical 
peculiarities, and by being able to discover their 
connexion and relation to the general classes on 
one side, and to the individual cases on the other, 
the conditional circumstances of each particular 
case may be added to the general principle, and 
thus ensure the success of its practical appli- 
cation. 

Though the foregoing method of induction must 
be allowed to be correct in its principle, as well as 
in its operation, the conclusions deduced by it 
would be only limitedly or partially true, unless 
there existed some means of extending it to a 
greater number of instances than could be ex- 
amined in a single table. If there was no way 
of placing the classifications of one table in corre- 
spondence with those of another, so as to gene- 
ralize them, by comparing them in a greater 
number of instances, it would be an imperfect 
instrument, and rather fitted for a kind of pioneer- 
ing preparation of materials for induction, by 
dressing them and putting them in order, than 
capable of performing that process. 

This defect is, however, easily supplied by the 



TABULiE INVENIENDI. 45 

following method of combining together the clas- 
sifications of different tables, and of assimilating 
the different signs to each other, in such a manner, 
that in a series of classifications the same sign may 
denote the same circumstance, and may continue 
to indicate the same relations between the different 
circumstances. 

In order to effect this object it is necessary to 
refer back to Form I. «,* and to make a trifling 
alteration in the manner of performing the last 
operation of that table. If, instead of merely 
carrying the signs of the circumstances into the 
column of classification, the number of signs of 
each circumstance, or the number of times each 
circumstance has recurred in the different in- 
stances, be reckoned, and the numbers be placed 
in the column of classification, under its proper 
sign, of which it may be called the co-efficient, we 
shall be supplied with the means of extending an 
induction.f 

* Vide p. 27. 
f Vide Form I. b. 



46 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

FORM I. b. 

CLASSIFICATION BY AFFIRMATIVE CIRCUMSTANCES NUMERICALLY. 



* 


It 




Classification 




Instances. 


of 
the Signs. 


A 
A 


B 
A 


C 
A 


> 
D 


> 

E 
A 


> 

F 
A 


> 

G 
A 


> 
H 


d 


X 


x 


>< 


>< 


> 
>< 


X 


1 — j 
> 
X 


> 
X 


■ — i 
> 
X 


x 


xi 
X 


Circumstances. 


A 


b!c 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 

&c. 


i 

A 


J 
A 


K 


L 
A 


M 


N 
A 




A 


P 


Q 
A 


R 
A 


s 

A 


T 
A 


t 


15 












19 

















A 


A 
B~ 


A 


A 
B 


A 


A 


A 


B~ 


A 


A 


A 
B 


A 


A 
B~ 


A 


A 


A 

b" 


A 


A 


A 


A 






6 














15 










— 






A 


A 


A 




A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




A 




A 




A 


A 


A 


A 










6 














C 


A 


A 


C 
A 


A 


~A 


a" 


C 

A 


A~ 


A 


A 


C 


X 


A 


A 


X 


C 
A 


C 
A 




20 
















A 


A 


A 




7 










~4 


— 




A 


— 


A 


— 


A 


F~ 


— 


— 


A 






A 














A 


A 
















F 








F 












F 






5 
















B 




B 








B 










B 






B 


























4H 
















H 


H 








H 










H 








20 
















A 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 

~c 


A 


A 


A 


A 

C~ 


A 


A 


A 


A 

c" 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 
C 


A 

C 








6 
















C 


















3K 






















K 




K 






K 












20 
















A 


A 


A 

C~ 


A 


A 


A 
C~ 


A 


A 


A 


A 

c~ 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 
C 


A 


A 


A 


A 

C 


A 

C 








6 
















2 












I 


D 
















D 




















15 


1 












A 


A 


A 


A 


A 




A 


A 


A 




A 


A 


A 




A 


A 


A 


A 










41 














B 




B 








B 






B 
































2 
















F 




































4 










2H 






C 






C 




H 










n 












c 


c 

T~ 


































IT 



























* The subject of investigation may be inserted in this open space. 

t By leaving some blank lines between the circumstances of the first instances, the circum- 
stances of the succeeding instances may be placed in a more natural order. 



TABULAE INVENIENDI. 47 

As it may frequently be required to extend the 
induction to a greater number of instances than 
can be entered in any single table, it may be more 
convenient always to make the classification by 
affirmative circumstances, after the manner of the 
preceding table; but it must not be forgotten that 
the truth of the induction is determined by the 
similarity of the signs, and not by their enumera- 
tion. The co-efficients of the signs afford the 
means of connecting one classification with ano- 
ther, but the relations of the circumstances to each 
other depend entirely upon their being repre- 
sented by the same sign. 

Supposing, therefore, it is required to place the 
classifications of several tables, prepared like the 
preceding, in correspondence with each other, it is 
only necessary to transfer them to the following table, 
in which this operation is to be performed, and 
which, because it consists in correctly adjusting the 
signs to the circumstances, I have, for the sake of 
distinction, called the process of Rectification. 



48 



OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
Form IV. RECTIFICATION OF THE SIGNS. 



* 




H 














Classifications of Different Series of Instances. 


xvecuiicdiiun 

of 

the Signs. 


Series 
No. I. 


Series 

No.n. 


Series 
No. HI. 


Circumstances. 


A 


B 
45 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 

&c 


A 


B 


C|D 


E 


F 

&c. 


A 


B 
17 


C 


D 


E 


F 

&c. 


t 






15 
























58 
















19 












19 












20 








~5 















5 
























1 














21 














6 














8 










47 
















15 

20 


— 










15 














17 
















20 












6 


— 


— 





12 


6 


— 


— 


— 


— 






8 










50 
















18 




















29 




























13 












16 








25 
















7 












9 














11 




















8 








— 


~5 






4 










2 






— 








2 








24 
























9 












10 
























H 

13 












H 

4 












L 

2 












H 

7 




60 


















20 










20 


~8 










20 


— 


— 


To 














24 














6 




























K 

7 


20 










K 

3 


20 






1 


— 





i 

2 


20 





To 





M 

2 




60 




















30 
















12 














8 












20 












6 
























11 






55 
















15 












20 














20 














20 
















4 














7 










9 


























K 

8 












F 

2 












K 

5 












F 
1 






11 


















2 










5 










H 
1 








4 




















H 

6 












H 

2 






H 

3 



* The subject of investigation may be inserted in this blank space. 

t By leaving blank lines between the circumstances of the first series, the circumstances of the 
subsequent series may be inserted in a more natural order. 



tabula inveniendi. 49 

The arrangement of this table is very similar to 
that of the first, the columns of the instances 
being occupied by the different series of classifica- 
tions, and the column of classification by that of the 
column rectification. Having entered in the table, 
in the usual way, the circumstances with the signs 
and co-efficients by which they are denoted in each 
separate classification, on the same line opposite to 
them, the next step is to place the circumstances 
in correspondence with their proper class, by 
selecting from the different signs by which they 
may be denoted in the different classifications, the 
proper sign by which they ought to be represented ; 
or the sign by which they would have been repre- 
sented, had the circumstances been classified by 
one general, instead of several particular operations. 
Now, in order that the correspondence of all the 
signs may be preserved, that all the circumstances 
may stand relatively to each other, and to their 
signs, precisely as they do in the separate classifi- 
cations, it is essentially necessary that the opera- 
tion by which this is effected, should have a fair 
and equable influence on all the signs and on all 
the circumstances. 

If the same circumstance continues to be de- 
noted by the same sign in the different classifica- 
tions, the operation is a simple one, and consists 
merely in placing under that sign, in the column of 
rectification, the sum of the co-efficients which 
stand before it. in all the classifications. If, how- 



50 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

ever, the same circumstance be denoted in the 
different classifications by different signs, that sign 
only is to be placed in the column of rectification, 
which carries the largest sum of co-efficients pro- 
portionate to the number of instances, as deduced 
from all the classifications : or in other words, the 
sign which has been most frequently repeated, and 
with it the sum of the co-efficients of all the signs 
by which the circumstance has been denoted. For 
it is self-evident, that if the same operation be 
performed equally on the signs of all the circum- 
stances, the column of rectification (^f) will correctly 
represent the same correspondence of the signs and 
circumstances, and the same relations between 
different signs and different circumstances, which 
previously existed in each separate classification. 
The process being the same in all, it is obvious 
that the effect ought to be the same. Thus the 
circumstances standing in the same class before 
the process of rectification, will also be found 
together in the same class after that process, for, if 
they be naturally related to each other, the rela- 
tion will be increased by being extended to a 
greater number of instances ; but if, on the con- 
trary, they stand together in one classification 
accidentally, and not in the others, then the 
process of rectification will place them in the 
proper classes to which they belong. So that in 

If Vide Form III. 



TABULA INVENIENDI. 51 

this way any false or casual relation will be de- 
stroyed, or expunged by this common operation, 
whilst any natural and well founded relation will be 
strengthened and made more conspicuous. 

This method of extending an induction by rec- 
tification of the signs, may be carried to any 
degree ; for the operation which has been applied to 
different series of classification may, also on the 
same principle, be repeated on different series of 
rectifications, and so on successively, until every 
instance is exhausted, so that at last there will only 
remain in the same classes, those circumstances 
which are constantly and universally related to 
each other. And in this manner, the process of 
classification by affirmative circumstances may be 
carried directly onward to such an extent, as to 
answer all the purposes of an exclusion by negative 
circumstances, and, when the instances are nu- 
merous, it may be conveniently substituted for it. 

But, in order that this operation of rectification 
may produce true and equal results, it is absolutely 
necessary that it should not be applied to signs in 
different stages of classification. That is to say, 
that signs merely classified, and signs which have 
already undergone the process of- rectification, 
cannot without an error be together submitted to 
the same operation ; and, in the same way, that 
signs in the first stage of rectification, and signs in 
a more advanced stage, cannot together undergo 
equally the same operation, without false conse- 

e 2 



52 ON A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

quences. For the signs most advanced in the 
inductive process will prevail over those which are 
less advanced, drawing them as it were into their 
more powerful vortex. As for example, should 
any circumstance be denoted in different classifica- 
tions by the sings 20 A, 16B, 13C, 1 ID, the principle 
of rectification would give 60 A as the proper 
sign. And suppose it is required to combine with 
this rectified sign 60 A, the sign in a classification 
of another series of instances, 25 B, it is evident 
that the operation of rectification being performed 
on these signs in different stages of classification, 
will give 85 A, but if it had been performed on 
signs in the same progress of classification, (20 A, 
16 B, 13 C, 11 D, 25 B,) the true and proper sign 
would have been 85 B. It will therefore readily 
appear how important it must be, in order to pre- 
vent the signs from being displaced, and conse- 
quently to preserve circumstances in the classes to 
which they naturally belong, that the process of 
rectification should be performed on signs in the 
same stage of classification. 

The process of rectification has been placed 
after that of exclusion or classification by negative 
circumstances, in order to afford at once a complete 
view of the method of induction by classification, 
but that may not always be the order in which they 
may be required to be made use of. It may fre- 
quently happen that the first process, the classifi- 
cation by affirmative circumstances, may not afford 






TABULAE 1NVENIENDI. 53 

classes sufficiently strong to bear the process of 
exclusion by negative circumstances, and in that 
case the classification must be continued by the 
process of rectification, until the classes are raised 
to a state which allows them to bear the process 
of exclusion. But in which ever order they 
may be used, the method is precisely the same. 

In order to extend the classification by negative 
circumstances, or the second process of exclusion, 
to a greater number of instances than it is possible 
for a single table to hold, no further provision is 
required. It is only necessary to carry forward 
the corrected classification of the class, from table 
to table, until all the instances have been ex- 
hausted. If there still remain circumstances which 
cannot be removed from the class by the operation 
of this process, it may be concluded that they are 
constantly related to each other, and induction can 
reach no further.* 

Such is the method of induction which the 
author has to propose, and for which he is sensible 
that he ought to solicit not less the indulgence 
than the attention of the reader ; but, lest the 
unavoidable tediousness of the explanation may 
have made it difficult to comprehend it as a 
whole, it may be useful, in resuming succinctly, 

* Turn vero post rejectionera et exclusionem debitis modis 
factam, secundo loco, tanquam in fundo, manebit, (abeuntibus in 
fumum opinionibus volatilibus) forma affirmativa, solida, et 
vera, et bene terminata. 



54 RECAPITULATION. 

to draw it into a narrower space, and state the 
processes of which it consists, the rules for per- 
forming these processes, and the precautions neces- 
sary for performing them correctly. 

The Method of Induction by Classification 
consists of the following processes i 

I. The translation of circumstances into signs, 
which express not only the presence and absence 
of circumstances relatively to each other, but also 
their reciprocal modes and modifications ; and 
which standing precisely in the position of the cir- 
cumstances, indicate all the possible relations which 
can exist between them.* 

II. The classification of signs by affirmative cir- 
cumstances according to their conjunction in dif- 
ferent instances or individual cases, by which 
those co-existing are classed together, and those 
not co-existing are excluded and separated from 
each other.f 

III. The extension of this principle to any num- 
ber of instances by the rectification of the signs. 

IV. Exclusion of those circumstances from the 
classes formed by the previous processes which are 
not found constantly present in the classes ; 1st, 
by the classification by negative circumstances, || and 
2dly, by deficiency of mutual variations and modifi- 
cations, ^f 

* Vide p. 24, 25, 26. f PP- 2 ?, 28. 

|| p. 32. U p. 36. 



PROCESSES AND RULES. 55 

And I think I may venture to repeat that these 
processes together comprehend every possible 
manner by which events or circumstances can be 
considered in all their different aspects and affec- 
tions, so as to decide by pure observation or expe- 
riment, how they stand related to each other, 
whether as cause or effect of each other, as com- 
mon causes of a common effect, or common effects 
of a common cause, which is all that can be at- 
tained by any method of pure observation. " For," 
as Kepler long ago observed, " it is one of the 
commonest axioms of natural philosophy, that if two 
things always happen together, and in the same 
manner, and admit the same measure, either the 
one is the cause of the other, or both are the effect 
of a common cause." 

Rules for performing the different processes 
of the Method of Induction by Classification. 

I. Translation of circumstances into signs. For 
every circumstance found in any instance, place 
a sign opposite to it in the column of the in- 
stance. If the circumstance has been already 
found in any previous instance, the sign by which 
it was first denoted must be repeated, but if not so, 
the sign of the instance will be the sign of the 
circumstance. If any circumstance already found 
in some previous instance, presents itself in another 
instance with some variation or modification, the 
Greek letter corresponding to the Roman letter, the 



56 PROCESSES AND RULES 

sign of the instance, is to be placed over the sign 
of the circumstance, and this letter must continue 
the sign of the same modification in all succeeding 
instances. 

II. Classification by affirmative circumstances. 
When all the circumstances have been translated 
into signs, according to the preceding rule, the 
signs of the circumstances are to be carried into 
the column of classification, each under their res- 
pective sign, so that the same signs may stand in 
the same vertical line ;* or, the co-efficient of each 
sign is to placed in the column of classification in- 
stead of the sign.f 

III. Rectification of the signs. The circum- 
stances and ' the signs by which they are repre- 
sented in the column of classification, are to be 
transferred to their appropriate columns in the 
table of rectification. If a circumstance is repre- 
sented by the same sign in all the classifications, 
the sum of its co-efficients is to be placed under 
that sign in the column of rectification. But if a 
circumstance be denoted by different signs in the 
different classifications, it is necessary to find that 
sign whose co-efficient carries the greatest sum 
proportionate to the number of instances, and the 
sum of the co-efficients of all the signs must be 
placed under that sign in the column of recti- 
fication. J 

* Vide p. 26. f Vide p. 46. 

% Vide p. 48, 49. 



OF THE NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 57 

IV. Exclusion. First, by the classification by 
negative circumstances, the sign of the instance is 
to be substituted for the sign of a class wherever 
any circumstance of a class is found defective; 
and, second, any circumstance of a class which does 
not indicate modifications or affections reciprocally 
with the other circumstances of the class, is to be 
rejected from the class. 

V. The products of the process of induction 
are to be at last transferred to the table of Syn- 
thesis, where every circumstance standing under 
its proper sign, whether of class or sub-class, 
shows the relations in w r hich they all stand to each 
other. 

Precautions necessary to ensure the correct 
performance of the method of induction by clas- 
sification. 

I. It is of the first importance that the instances 
or particular cases submitted to examination should 
be as entire and complete in all their circum- 
stances or particulars as it is possible to procure 
them. In whatever way an inductive process may 
be carried on, it must follow as a matter of course, 
that if the instances are mutilated or deficient in 
their circumstances, the conclusion* must be rela- 
tively incorrect.* And, therefore, although we are 

* Primo enim paranda est liistoria naturalfs et experimentalis 
sufficiens et bona ; quod fundamentum rei est ; neque enim fin- 
gendum, aut excogitandum, sed inveniendum quid natura facial, 
aut feral. 



58 PRECAUTIONS FOR THE CORRECT PERFORMANCE. 

enabled by this method to avail ourselves of frag- 
ments of instances, and to extract all the relations 
or evidence they are capable of affording, yet as it 
sets forth more to open day the false results which 
must ever attend any induction from imperfect in- 
stances, it demands more accurate histories of them. 
II. It is also very important that the same 
expressions should, as nearly as possible, be used 
for the same circumstances, so that the signs may 
be expressions of things not of words only, or 
signs of signs. Otherwise, when the circum- 
stances are translated into signs, by reason of a 
difference of expression, the same circumstance 
in reality may yet be denoted by different signs, 
which would obviously lead to a serious error. 
This part of the operation, the translation of cir- 
cumstances into signs, corresponds very nearly to 
that which Lord Bacon calls the excitatio notio- 
nwm, and if authority were necessary, we could 
not refer to any more decisive. But the history of 
every controversy offers sad but sufficient expe- 
rience, that in every process of reasoning, the 
truth and certainty of the whole operation depends 
entirely upon the faithful and correct expressions 
of things, or the correct translation of circum- 
stances into signs, so that neither may the same 
thing have different signs, nor different things the 
same sign.* 

* Itaque si notiones ipsae (id quod basis rei est) confusae sint 
et temere a rebus abstracts, nihil in iis quae superstruuntur est 
firmitudinis. 



OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 59 



CHAPTER II. 

The Method of Induction by Classification compared 
with the Method of the Novum Organon. 



It cannot have escaped observation, that, in ex- 
plaining this method of induction, no opportunity 
has been omitted of calling in the authority of Lord 
Bacon to sanction and to approve the different 
steps of the operation ; and they who are more 
conversant with his particular precepts for carrying 
on the inductive process, or what he somewhere 
calls his formula for the interpretation of nature, 
must have already perceived how closely it has 
been sought to imitate, and how implicitly it has 
been endeavoured to obey them. But it seems 
also incumbent to show by a formal comparison 
with the standard of induction, which he has left 
as an example, that the requisite conditions for 
conducting the operation, are fully and sufficiently 
accomplished by the method of classification.* 

I. It is only from the precepts which Lord Bacon 
has laid down for what he calls the discovery of 

* For sake of convenient reference the reader may consult 
the luminous exposition of the philosophy of Lord Bacon in the 
"Library of Useful Knowledge." 



60 THE METHOD OF INDUCTION, 

forms, that we are made acquainted with his parti- 
cular manner of conducting a process of induction. 
Now it cannot be doubted, that not entertaining a 
very accurate notion of the limits which confine hu- 
man knowledge, he set up a division of philosophy 
which experience has not authorised, and that not 
distinguishing, with sufficient precision, efficient 
from physical causes, he confidently anticipated, 
that science would be able to penetrate more deep- 
ly into the mysteries of nature than the severer 
philosophy of later times permits us to hope. He 
therefore certainly did comprehend under the term 
form, something more than what modern philoso- 
phers understood by the word law or cause, and 
hence separated the investigation of forms, * from 
that which regards the common and ordinary course 
of nature. f Of the many discoveries, which since 
his time have given us an insight into the hidden 
nature of things, no one perhaps approaches so 
nearly to his conception of form, I as the theory of 
the latent heat of fluids. For although in the phce- 

* Leges fundamentales, et communes, quae constituunt for- 
mas. 

•j* Consuetudines naturae particulares et speciales. 

J Etenim forma alicujus naturae talis est, ut ea posita natura 
data infallibiliter sequatur. Itaque adest perpetuo quando na- 
tura ilia adest, atque earn universaliter affirmat atque inest omni. 
Eadem forma talis est, ut ea amota natura data infallibiliter fugiat. 
Itaque abest perpetuo quando natura ilia abest, eamque perpetuo 
abnegat atque inest soli. 



OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 61 

nomenon of the liquifying of bodies by heat, the 
sensible heat can only be regarded as a common 
physical cause, yet the latent heat which sustains 
its fluidity, is so intrinsically identified with the na- 
ture of fluids, that it might deserve some distinc- 
tion from the manner of its cause, and be called in 
the language of the Novum Organon, its form or 
quidipsum.* But it is sufficient for our purpose 
to know, that, besides this meaning of the word 
form, he did also attach to it another sense, the 
same as is generally understood by the laws of 
nature. Of this he has given clear and definite 
explanations in language of the purest philosophy ;f 
and as it therefore would be perfectly correct to 
say, that the laws of gravitation are the form of 
gravity, we are justified in considering his precepts 
for the discovery of forms as rules for investigating 
the laws of nature, the order of the succession of 
events, or, in other words, for the discovery of 
physical causes. 

If then the language of Lord Bacon be translated 

* Intelligatur hoc quod diximus de motu (nempe ut sit instar 
generis ad calorem) non quod calor generet motum, aut quod 
motus generet calorem (licet et haec in aliquibus vera sint) sed 
quod ipsissimus calor, sive quidipsum caloris sit motus et nihil 
aliud. 

■f Licet enim in natura, nihil vere existat praeter corpora in- 
dividua, edentia actus puros individuos ex lege ; in doctrinis ta- 
men ilia ipsa lex, ejusque inquisitio et inventio atque explicatio, 
pro fundamento est tarn ad sciendum quam ad operandum. Earn 
autem legem ejusque paragraphos formarum nomine intelligimus. 



62 THE METHOD OF INDUCTION, 

into that of modern philosophy ; if for forms and 
formal causes be substituted the laws of nature, the 
principles or rules which she constantly observes in 
her operations, and for simple natures or abstract 
qualities, the simple and elementary forms of matter, 
the constituent phenomena of events, the ultimate 
circumstances into which facts are capable of being 
resolved ; if by copulate forms and concrete natures 
be understood the laws which regulate the consti- 
tution and composition of bodies, and by latent pro- 
cess or latent structure, the proximate causes, the 
series of minute actions which compose a pheno- 
menon, or the minute parts and their adaptation to 
each other for the formation of any larger body ; 
it will be found that all these different terms are 
only varied expressions of the same thing,— the con- 
stant order observable in the phenomena of nature. 
To say, therefore, that no event or circumstance 
can be the cause or effect of another unless they 
be constantly present in the same instance (me- 
diately or immediately), and constantly absent, at 
the same time, from the same instance, and con- 
stantly increase and decrease mutually with each 
other, is faithfully to interpret the doctrine for the 
discovery of forms.* 

And it seems to be not unworthy of being here 
remarked, that this axiom, which may be considered 

* Est itaque inductionis verae opus primum (quatenus ad in* 
veniendas formas) rejectio sive exclusiva naturarum singularum, 
quae non inveniuntur in aliqua instantia, ubi natura data adest. 



OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 63 

as the great dictum of the inductive logic, the se- 
verest scrutiny of modern philosophers has in no 
respect been able to alter or improve, and, that 
although Lord Bacon may not have entertained so 
accurate a notion concerning the relation of cause 
and effect as Barrow, Berkely, or Hume, yet, con- 
fining the knowledge of nature to ascertaining the 
constancy of the succession or conjunctions of 
events or circumstances, "ingenium rebus submit- 
tentem," in his principle and in his practice, he en- 
tirely anticipated their philosophy. 

Lord Bacon having, as his meaning has been in- 
terpreted, fixed the above as the doctrine of causes, 
next proceeds to direct how it is to be put into 
practice for their investigation. For this purpose 
he points out, first, the necessity and importance of 
a full and sufficient history of all that is known 
concerning the subject of inquiry (ministratio ad 
sensum); secondly ,the methodical arrangement of the 
materials of such a history, that the understanding 
may be better able to consider them, and the judg- 
ment to operate upon them more correctly (minis- 
tratio ad memoriam); and, these preparations being 
made, it is still necessary, in the third place, to guide 
and direct the understanding in raising axioms or 
drawing conclusions, which constitutes the parti- 
cular act of induction (ministratio ad rationem). 

Aut inveniuntur in aliqua instantia ubi natura data abest, aut in- 
veniuntur in aliqua instantia crescere cum natura data decrescat; 
aut decrescere cum natura data crescat. 



64 THE METHOD OF INDUCTION, 

The methodical arrangement of the materials of 
any investigation, which he calls the presentation 
of instances to the understanding, (comparentia 
instantiarum ad intellectum), consists of three tables. 
The first contains all the instances or particular 
facts in which the subject of inquiry is present, but 
under different forms or combinations,* and is 
therefore called tabula essentia? et prcesentice. The 
second contains those instances in which the circum- 
stances which form the subject of inquiry, are ab- 
sent. But, as it would be impossible to exhaust every 
negative instance, he means only such as are 
nearly related to the instances of the first table, 
resembling them in as many circumstances as pos- 
sible, except those which constitute the subject 
of investigation.f Hence these instances are called 
instantice absentia? in proximo. The third table con- 
tains those instances, in which the subject inquired 
into, presents itself in different degrees or modifi- 
cations J and which for this reason he calls tabula 



* Quae in natura eadem conveniunt per materias licet dissimil- 
limas. 

•j" Itaque subjungenda sunt negativa affirmativis et privationes 
inspiciendse tantum, in illis subjectis, quce sunt maxime cognata 
Mis alteris, in quibus natura data inest et comparest. 

J Tertio facienda est comparentia ad intellectum instantiarum, 
in quibus natura, de qua fit inquisitio, inest secundum magis et 
minus ; sive facta comparatione incrementi et decrementi in eo- 
dem subjecto, sive facta comparatione ad invicem in subjectis 
diversis. 



THE METHOD OF INDUCTION, 65 

graduum. These tables being completed and well 
furnished with their appropriate instances, we may- 
next proceed to perform the induction, which is 
the rejection or exclusion of circumstances accord- 
ing to the doctrine above laid down. 

It is plain that the instances of the first table can 
afford only very imperfect knowledge of the cause 
or nature of the subject under investigation, be- 
cause it can only be known as it exists in its dif- 
ferent particular combinations with other circum- 
stances, as presented in each individual instance. 
It may be surmised or conjectured, from observing 
some circumstance more frequently than the others 
in the combinations, that it is the probable cause, 
but all certain information concerning it must be 
limited to particular conclusions.* It is therefore 
necessary to compare with these instances, the in- 
stances of the second table, seriatim. Now it fol- 
lows, that all the circumstances found equally in the 
instances of the first table and in the instances of 
the second table, and therefore not fulfilling the 
first condition of cause and effect, viz. being per- 
petually present in the same instances, and absent 
at the same time from the same instances, can have 



* Nullum enim per eas constituitur axioma, sed tantum notio 
simplex cum historia ordinata ; certd verificata per ministratio- 
nem primam atque ita reprsesentata per secundam, ut tanquam in 
potestate nostra sit. Impetus Philosophici. 



66 METHOD OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 

no connexion with the subject of the inquiry.* In 
like manner, in the instances of the third table, 
where the subject of the inquiry presents itself in 
different degrees or modifications, all those circum- 
stances which do not show corresponding changes, 
are to be rejected or excluded, because they do not 
fulfil the second condition of cause and effect, viz., 
perpetually increasing and decreasing together.f — 
Setting aside the circumstances which do not belong 
to the subject of inquiry by a comparison of these 
different kinds of instances, constitutes the process 
of exclusion. 

After all the circumstances which fall under the 
two preceding predicaments have been removed, it 
is permitted by Lord Bacon to affirm the remaining 
circumstances of each other, (Vindemiatio prima,) 
this, however, not universally, but only under the 
conditions in which they are combined ; and this 
he calls limiting the affirmative conclusion by differ- 
ences. 

To have simply stated the doctrine and explained 
the precepts of the Novum Organon would seem 
to be all that is necessary to lead the reader to the 
conclusion, that the method of induction by classi- 

* Quia forma, ut dictum est, non minus abesse debet ubi na- 
tura data abest ; quam adesse ubi adest. 

■j" Omnino sequitur ut non recipiatur aliqua natura pro vera 
forma nisi perpetiio decrescat, quando natura ipsa decescit et 
similiter perpetuo augeatur quando natura ipsa augetur. 



METHOD OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 67 

fication is founded precisely on the same principle, 
and works by the same rule as the method of Lord 
Bacon, and that they only differ in some modifica- 
tions of the means of performing the operation. 

If the first table of the Novum Organon be com- 
pared with the table of classification by qffirmitive 
circumstances, it is evident, that the former is 
a mere historical collection of instances, containing 
the subject of inquiry in different forms or com- 
binations, but no progress whatever has been made 
towards induction ; whilst the latter, by resolving 
the particular combinations of the circumstances of 
all the different instances into separate classes 
of circumstances, according to their relative co- 
existence, narrows the field of investigation to the 
class containing the subject or particular circum- 
stance of inquiry, excluding all the other classes 
as has been already explained. So that the first 
table of classification is not only a tabula essentice 
et prcesentice, but as soon as the signs have been 
collected into classes, becomes also a table of ex- 
clusion. 

The classification by negative circumstances is 
an exact copy of the operation performed by the 
second table of Lord Bacon, by which, circum- 
stances though classed together, are rejected from 
the inquiry by individual negative instances. There 
is this difference, however, that, by the operation 
of this table, the particular instances are se- 

f2 



68 METHOD OF INDUCTION BY CLASSIFICATION. 

lected and applied to the circumstances of the class 
without any previous acquaintance with them,, and 
without the necessity of arranging them, or of 
searching for them. 

In the same manner, the signs of the modifi- 
cations of circumstances, imitate precisely the in- 
stances of the tabula graduum, and serve the same 
purpose, preparing for the rejection of circum- 
stances which do not express reciprocal modifi- 
cations. 

It appears, therefore, that the process of exclusion 
which Lord Bacon reserves for his fourth table, 
has been already anticipated, partly by the classifi- 
cation by affirmative circumstances, and partly by 
the classification by negative circumstances ; so that 
these two tables perform the operations of all the 
tables of Lord Bacon, and complete the process of 
induction. 

The arrangement of the results in the last table 
(Form III. or Synthesis) may also be compared to 
the affirmative conclusion of the vindemiatio ; for 
there, the circumstances remaining after the process 
of rejection are brought together, and affirmed of 
each other ; subject, however, to the condition in 
which they are found, and by which the conclusion 
is limited. 

But, not to draw out this comparison to an 
unnecessary length, I think it is perfectly correct 
to say, that, the tables of classification being in- 



METHOD OF INDUCTION OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 69 

struments strictly adapted for discovering and de- 
termining the constancy of the conjunction of 
circumstances or events, the method of induction 
by classification is nothing more than a reduction 
of the dictum of the Novum Organon to practical 
rules, which, by the aid of signs and tables, may 
be worked almost mechanically. 

II. The comprehensive view which Lord Bacon 
took of philosophy, did not terminate here; for, 
besides the raising of axioms or general principles 
from particular instances, it was his intention to 
have laid down rules to direct not only the applica- 
tion of general principles to particular cases,* but 
also for deducing new cases from general prin- 
ciples. It is deeply to be regretted that he never 
finished this part of his work, and that the world 
should have been deprived of the expedients which 
might have suggested themselves to his penetrating 
genius for the furtherance of so important a part 
of philosophy as that which, as he expresses it, 
renders science active. It cannot, however, fail 
to be interesting to know even his distant con- 

* Indicia de interpretatione naturae complectantur partes in 
genere duas ; primam de educendis et excitandis axiomatibus ab 
experimentis ; secundam de deducendis et derivandis experimentis 
novis ab axiomatibus. Neque enim in piano via sita est, sed as- 
cendendo et descendendo ; ascendendo primo ad axiomata, 
descendendo ad opera. 



70 METHOD OF SYNTHESIS. 

templations of such a subject, and to collect his 
suggestions as they have descended to us, scattered 
here and there in his works. 

How accurate were the notions which he enter- 
tained concerning this subject, may be learned from 
some prefatory observations which he has delivered. 
Thus he reminds us, that in the investigations 
which are carried on by the inductive formula, 
a constant intercourse may be kept up between 
the contemplative and active part, or between the 
corresponding steps of the ascending and de- 
scending scale of axioms, by what he calls an open 
and convenient cross-path, — " manifesto et con- 
stant tramite." And, that men should never 
forget, that individual cases, which must ever be 
the subject of practical applications, are of course 
at the bottom of the scale, and that therefore a 
descending scale is necessary, by which they may 
come down gradually from their lofty generalities, 
and make themselves acquainted with particular 
combinations.* Nor, he adds, is it possible to 
descend to individual cases by single axioms or 
principles, for the individual combinations can 
seldom be so simple but that different principles 
have also an influence upon them. This, therefore, 
leads to the necessity of considering the union or 
composition of axioms with one another in order to 

* Omnis enim operatio in individuis versatur, quae infimo loco 
sunt. Itaque a generalibus per gradus ad ea descendendum est. 



METHOD OF PRACTICE. 71 

insure a correct and successful practical application 
of general principles.* 

From these observations may be deduced the 
three different parts of which he intended his 
active doctrine, (as he terms it,) to consist. The 
first of these was to have laid down a distinct and 
proper manner of inquiry, when it is no longer a 
cause, or a principle which is to be discovered, but 
their practical application to one particular case, or 
the practical execution of one particular opera- 
tion. The second was to have shown a manner of 
preparing general practical tables, by which a 
method of applying general principles or of effecting 
every kind of operation might be more readily and 
easily supplied. The third would have taught a 
method, though imperfect yet very useful, by which 
we might proceed from one individual case to an- 
other, without raising axioms or drawing general 
conclusions. For, he observes, as from one prin- 
ciple to another, so from one individual case to 
another, a kind of cross-way may be opened, 
though neither so safe or certain yet very deserving 
of attention — " instabilis et lubrica sed non silentio 
praetermittenda." From these observations and 
from this explanation of his intentions, may be 
collected, that, contrary to the method of in- 
duction, by which we proceed from particulars 

* Neque rursus fieri potest, ut per axiomata simplicia ad ea 
perveniatur ; omne enim opus atque ejus ratio ex coitione axiom- 
atum diversarum instituitur et designatur. 



72 METHOD OF SYNTHESIS. 

to generals, which has only one correct road, the 
method of practice has two. The first of these 
is by a gradual descent from generalities to par- 
ticulars, in which the more general principle as 
it proceeds downwards enlarges, its base, by the 
gradual addition of other axioms, or principles less 
general, but which have an influence upon the 
particular case. And such ought to be the object 
of a philosophical synthesis, but how very different 
from the present use of this process we may easily 
learn by inspecting any single practical illustration 
of it, where a few general conclusions are at once 
applied to the most particular cases. The other is 
the method of lateral transduction by the cross-zvay, 
either from one individual case to another, or from 
an axiom or principle in the ascending scale to its 
corresponding one in the descending scale. This 
last is the experientia literata of which Lord Bacon 
has left us a masterly sketch ; and although it may 
not advance science or establish art on the broad 
basis of induction, yet as it seems to be the means 
by which man in the earlier stage of society ministers 
to his wants and converts the gradual accessions 
of knowledge more speedily to his use ; — and being 
the only method of every art which has not been 
enlightened by science, it seems to me to deserve 
more careful cultivation than has, heretofore, been 
bestowed upon it. 

Were I not afraid of seeming to attribute too 



METHOD OF PRACTICE. 73 

much to the induction by classification, I should 
be disposed to say, that its advantages are not 
solely confined to the method of analysis, but that, 
by preserving all the subordinate classes which 
result from that operation, it promises to be useful 
in the method of synthesis. For, by allowing them 
to be added to the principal class, it forms a gra 
dual and continuously descending scale which 
connects the general conclusion with each indivi- 
dual case. And, in the same manner, all the 
individual and specifical peculiarities being distin- 
guished and brought forward, may serve as sign- 
posts, (continuing Lord Bacon's comparison), to 
direct the observer to the different cross-ways 
which lead between the corresponding stages of 
the two great roads, and thus help to convert the 
experientia literata into a more correct guide. 

This would have been the fit place to have con- 
sidered whether the rules of the Aristotelian logic 
might have afforded any useful assistance for di- 
recting the application of general principles to 
particular cases, that being more properly its 
province, but I prefer reserving my observations 
on that subject until I have considered more 
particularly the general nature of classification. In 
the mean time, however, it may be remarked, that 
Lord Bacon seems not to have entertained such an 
opinion, having very accurately perceived the 
reason why the syllogism can never be applied to 



74 METHOD OF PRACTICE. 

any subjects but such as are of the nature of 
conventional science, if it be allowed to use such 
an expression.* 

* Si concedatur, principia scientiarum ex inductione qua 
utuntur vel sensu et experientia, recte posse constitui, certissimum 
est tamen, axiomata inferiora ab iis per syllogisimum non posse 
(in rebus naturalibus quae "participant ex materia) recte et tuto 
deduci. In syllogisimo enim fit reductio propositionum ad prin- 
cipia per propositions medias. Haec autem sive inveniendi sive 
probandi forma in scientiis popularibus (veluti ethicis, politicis, 
legibus, et hujus modi) locum habet. Imo et in theologicis, 
quando quidem Deo pro bonitate sua placuerit captui humano se 
accomodare. At in physicis, ubi naturaopere, non adversarius ar- 
gumento, constringendus est, elabitur plane Veritas ex manibus, 
propter longe majorem naturalium operationum, quam verborum, 
subtilitatem. 



75 



CHAPTER III. 

Of certain Advantages peculiar to the Method of 
Induction by Classification. 



" Neque tamen illis nihil adde posse affirmamus ; sed contra, nos qui men- 
tern respicimus, non tantum in facultate propria, sed quatenus copulatur cum 
rebus, artem inveniendi cum inventis adolescere posse statuere debemus." 



If the judgment of others should correspond 
with my own conviction, I shall not have been un- 
satisfactorily occupied in the preceding chapters, 
in endeavouring to explain the method of induction 
by classification. I trust indeed that I have suc- 
ceeded in showing, that it is a safe and correct way, 
of carrying on that process, and, that although 
performed by a different operation, it is virtually the 
same, and of course founded on the same principles, 
as the method of Lord Bacon. But I am not 
disposed to think that this would have afforded a 
sufficient reason for trespassing on public attention, 
could it not also be made appear that it offers 
certain advantages which the ordinary method does 
not possess. 

I. There are many branches of knowledge, 
ministering equally to the happiness and well-being 



76 ADVANTAGES OF 

of mankind to which the organ of induction has 
never yet been applied; every attempt to effect 
this desirable object by the ordinary method hav- 
ing ended in disappointment. Among these may 
be numbered civil polity, political ceconomy, sta- 
tistics, medicine, meteorology, and many other de- 
partments of science. There is no difficulty in 
understanding why the benefits of the inductive 
logic have not been extended to them. It is well 
known to arise from the great number of parti- 
cular circumstances which enter into the in- 
stances, or individual facts, which belong to these 
sciences, and the great diversity of their combina- 
tions. It is impossible for the mind, unassisted by 
some help or expedient, to comprehend all the 
circumstances, — to estimate their relative influence, 
and to consider the changes induced by their 
different combinations. A few circumstances, often 
selected, more by prejudice, caprice, or chance, than 
by judgement, entirely absorb the attention, 
whilst others, frequently the most important, are 
left totally disregarded. The necessary conse- 
quences of this faulty reasoning are partial in- 
ductions or false classifications, unfounded theories 
and unsuccessful practical applications. Now, 
although I cannot allow myself to believe that the 
method of classification removes the source of all 
these errors, I am confident that it affords very con- 
siderable assistance towards it, and that placing 
many subjects within the grasp of induction which 



METHOD OF INDUCTION BY CLASSIFICATION. 77 

have been heretofore excluded, it leads to the 
establishment of more correct general conclusions,* 
There is another advantage which follows from 
the power of being able, by this method of induc- 
tion, to comprehend and consider every circum- 
stance or particular, to which allusion has been 
already made in a former part of this work. I 
mean that, whilst the more general conclusions 
must be correctly deduced, those which are less 
general are not neglected, and even the circum- 
stances the most specific are all distinguished ; and 
hence by this means an uninterrupted chain of cir- 
cumstances connects the general conclusion with 
each of the individual instances from which it has 
been deduced. We are thus enabled to keep up a 
more intimate acquaintance with individual facts, 
and, by combining with the general conclusion those 
which are subordinate or more specific, we ensure 
a greater degree of certainty when we apply a 
general principle to a practical purpose. In this 
way, it may not be too much to say, that the 
method of classification unites to the ascending 
scale, or the rising from individual facts to general 
conclusions, a kind of descending scale, which leads 
from general principles to individual facts, and thus 
serves in some degree the object of what Lord 

* Interim particularium multitudinem nemo reformidet, quin 
potius hoc ipsum ad spem revocet. Sunt enim artium et naturae 
particularia phenomena, manipuli instar ad ingenii commenta, 
postque ab evidentia rerum disjuncta et abstracta fuerint. 



78 ADVANTAGES OF 

Bacon intended by his reduction to practice, (de- 
ductio ad praxin,) or a method of making the dis- 
covery of general principles active, and useful to 
mankind. 

To this may be added another advantage which 
also results from the power of considering every 
circumstance and of embracing all the relations 
which may exist between the circumstances. It is, 
that there is no experience lost or cast away ; for 
many circumstances, and many relations of these 
circumstances, though not comprehended in the 
general conclusion, are yet brought under the at- 
tention, and may be made available in other in- 
quiries. Thus the relations of different circum- 
stances observed incidentally in one investigation 
may be made to abbreviate the labour of another, 
and may suggest hints for directing the pursuit 
after those which still remain concealed. In this 
way, the method of classification may be fruitful 
in eliciting those striking and luminous facts 
which Lord Bacon calls prerogative instances. And 
this gives me also the occasion of repeating, what 
has before been said of experiment, that it is the 
power of creating prerogative instances ; and there- 
fore I may add, that this method of analysis, by 
drawing out such instances, affords, in some degree, 
the means of endowing observations with the privi- 
lege of experiment. 

It is also an advantage peculiar to this method 
of induction that, besides the power of considering 



METHOD OF INDUCTION BY CLASSIFICATION. 79 

every circumstance, it may also embrace any num- 
ber of instances. There are many circumstances 
which are intimately connected with each other, 
whose relations do not appear in a few instances, 
but when followed through a great number, accu- 
mulate to a degree which it is impossible to over- 
look. The individual facts or instances to which I 
am alluding, seem to resemble each other so closely, 
that when the induction is confined to a small num- 
ber, the affections of their different circumstances 
towards each other cannot be discovered. But that 
difference which is trifling and when confined to 
a few instances, escapes observation, accumulating 
and enlarging with the number, attracts the atten- 
tion and invites investigation. It is however most 
difficult — indeed almost impossible, to extend the 
common method of induction to a number of 
instances sufficient to make such minute relations 
apparent, and it is therefore only in such things as 
are mensurable, admitting of the application of the 
calculus, in which they can be traced. To proceed 
through such a number of instances by the ordinary 
method of exclusion, would exhaust the patience 
and exceed the power of attention of the most in- 
defatigable observer. But the method of classifica- 
tion may be extended to any number of instances, 
without requiring any extraordinary intellectual 
effort, and the process being almost mechanical, 
may be safely confided to any capacity. It may 
therefore be permitted to say, that subjects beyond 



80 ADVANTAGES OF 

the grasp of the ordinary method, either on account 
of the number of their circumstances or the number 
of their instances, are yet within the reach of the 
method of classification. 

II. The next peculiarity of the method of classi- 
fication which it is proper to notice, is that which 
arises from the operation being performed by de- 
terminate rules, the facility of the process being 
thereby very much increased, and the chances of 
error very much diminished. Every one knows 
how easy the most difficult operation becomes 
when reduced to a rule which allows it to be 
repeated. Arithmetic affords many examples of this 
kind. Processes which have required the most con- 
summate skill in the contrivance, when reduced to 
a rule by which they may be frequently repeated, 
become so easy as to be performed almost mechan- 
ically and without any effort of the attention. Such 
a rule becomes an instrument which, when placed 
under the direction of even the most common capa- 
city, enables it to perform, with the greatest facility, 
an operation which may have cost the greatest pains 
and labour to the inventor, and thus renders the 
success of the operation independent of the qualities 
of the mind.* 

When the method of conducting any investiga- 
tion is left to the option of the inquirer, errors are 

* Nostra vero inveniendi scientias ea est ratio, ut non multum 
ingeniorum acumini et robori relinquatur, sed quae ingenia et 
intellectus fere exaequat. 



ADVANTAGES OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 81 

apt to creep into the results from two different 
sources. The method not having been ex- 
amined and reduced to fixed rules of procedure 
may contain within itself the cause of erroneous 
results. But the other is a more fruitful source of 
error ; for, where no fixed rule has been laid down, 
the mind in its operations is constantly exposed to 
the bias and prejudice of the feelings; and the 
understanding, instead of proceeding directly for- 
ward, is frequently drawn aside to false conclusions. 
It is therefore an advantage which belongs pecu- 
liarly to the method of induction by classification, 
to guard the understanding from the influence of 
those causes of error which Lord Bacon distin- 
guishes by the name of idola ; for, by enforcing a 
regular method of procedure, it bestows all the 
correctness and the facility which the repetition of 
any operation is capable of ensuring. 

To this head may also be referred the advantage 
which belongs peculiarly to the use of signs instead 
of words, by which all those errors of induction 
depending upon the inaccurate use of language, are 
completely obviated. Words can seldom be re- 
stricted to one distinct sense, or made to convey 
only one meaning ; but the signs can have no other 
meaning than the circumstances which they repre- 
sent. If therefore the translation of the circum- 
stances into signs has been made correctly, the 
operation which is performed by the signs is no 
longer subject to the errors which arise from un- 

G 



82 TALENT OF OBSERVATION. 

defined or double meanings. And mere signs, 
being pure abstract forms like figures, can neither 
feel the influence of passion or prejudice, and their 
combinations being made by definite rules, cannot 
be altered by the will or the feelings.* 

III. The advantages of the method of classifica- 
tion which have just been alluded to, belong more 
strictly to the nature of the operation considered 
in itself; those which I have now to mention, relate 
to the influence which it is likely to have upon the 
minds of those who may make use of it, and the 
mental habits which it is likely to induce. 

It being the nature of the method of classifica- 
tion, to direct the attention to every circumstance 
of an instance, such as are defective of circum- 
stances, are easily observed, and those which are 
incorrect, more certainly detected. In this way it 
may be said to ensure more perfect materials for c 
the intellect to work upon, and to protect it equally 
from such as are false or imperfect. But leading 
thus to a more accurate knowledge of the qualities 
of particular instances, it ensures habits of close 
and accurate observation. As the eye gains cor- 
rectness and precision from the use of optical 
instruments, it may not be too much to hope that 
the " mind's eye" may increase its power and field 
of vision by a mental instrument, and that thus 

* Atque ut instrumenta manus motum aut cient aut regunt ; 
ita et instrumenta mentis intellectui aut suggerunt aut cavent. 



HABITS OF METHOD. 83 

that important talent for the interpretation of 
nature, the power of observing with truth and fidel- 
ity, may be promoted by its habitual use. 

After the habit of clear and correct observation, 
which the use of this method of analysis tends to 
nourish and indeed to insist upon, I may mention 
another beneficial consequence likely to arise from 
it, equally necessary and important for forming 
correct judgments and well founded opinions, — I 
mean the habits of method, of clear and perspi- 
cuous arrangement, which must necessarily be 
formed by the use of this instrument of method. 
On this subject I cannot do better than introduce 
the philosophical observations of M. Cuvier, who 
long exercised in the habits of method, has made it 
subservient to such splendid results in the natural 
history of the animal kingdom. 

" Cette habitude que Ton prend necessairement 
en etudiant l'histoire naturelle, de classer dans son 
esprit un tres grand nombre d' idees, est l'un des 
avantages de cette science dont on a le moins parle, 
et qui deviendra peut-etre le principal, lorsqu' elle 
aura ete generalement introduite dans ^education 
commune ; on s'exerce par-la dans cette partie de 
la logique qui se nomme la methode, a peu pres 
comme on s'exerce par l'etude de la geometrie dans 
celle qui se nomme le syllogisme, par la raison que 
l'histoire naturelle est la science qui exige les me- 
thodes les plus precises, comme la geometrie celle 



84 HABITS OF METHOD. 

qui demande les raisonnemens les plus rigoureux. 
Or, cet art de la methode, une fois qu'on le possede 
bien, s'applique avec un avantage innni aux etudes 
les plus etrangeres a l'histoire naturelle. Toute 
discussion qui suppose un classement des faits, 
toute recherche qui exige une distribution des 
matieres, se fait d'apres les memes lois ; et tel 
jeune homme qui n'avait cru faire de cette science 
qu'un objet d' amusement, est surpris lui-meme, a 
Pessai, de la facilite qu'elle lui a procuree pour 
debrouiller tous les genres d'affaires." 

I will close this enumeration of the advantages 
which are proper to the method of induction by 
classification, by drawing the attention to one 
which to many may seem to be rather remote, but 
which to me appears to be highly deserving of 
consideration. I allude to the mental operation, 
when induction is carried on unconsciously and in- 
tuitively, being exactly represented by the process 
of classification : — For if, as I think, there is reason 
to believe that the understanding when acting, 
" sponte et memoriter" does observe this method, 
or one very similar to it, it follows that the tabular 
analysis as it proceeds, sets constantly before the 
mind a reflected picture of its own operation, in a 
permanent and tangible form, which, complete in 
all its details, may be reviewed and referred to as 
occasion demands. This cannot be said of the 
most correct and vivid conception, or of the most 



I 



HABITS OF METHOD. 85 

cool and deliberate judgment ; for so evanescent 
are the operations of the mind, that they elude 
the powers of the most retentive memory, and, 
defying every effort to retrace them, preclude the 
possibility of recovering any false step of the 
inductive process. 



86 



CHAPTER IV. 
METHODUS CONTABULANDI : 

OR, MODIFICATIONS OF THE TABLES OF ANALYSIS TO SUIT 
DIFFERENT SUBJECTS OF INVESTIGATION. 

"Atque insuper, cum tantus sit particularium numerus, et quasi exercitus, 
isque ita sparsus et diffusus, ut intellectus disgreget et confundat, de velitationibus 
et levibus motibus, et transcursibus intellectus, non bene sperandum est ; nisi fiat 
instructio et coordinatio per tabulas inveniendi idoneas, et bene dispositas, et 
tanquam vivas; eorum quae pertinent ad subjectum in quo versatur inquisitio, 
atque ad harura tabularum auxilia prseparata et digesta mens applicetur. 

Novum Organum, Aphorismus, C. II. 

They who have taken the pains to make them- 
selves acquainted with the method of induction 
by classification, will find it a matter of little 
difficulty to adapt its principle to the subjects of 
their investigations. The spirit of inquiry will 
readily suggest such alterations of the tables of 
analysis as may be necessary to fit the instrument 
to its object. To facilitate, however, as much as 
possible, the use of this method, I have thought it 
proper to preface its application to particular 
subjects, with some general modifications of the 
tables suited to the different forms in which the 
materials may be presented. But lest the reader 
should be daunted by the formidable array of 
so many tables, I beg to encourage him by re- 
minding him, that the whole process of induction 



METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 87 

seldom requires more than two tables, viz., one 
form of the classification by affirmative circumstances, 
and another form of the classification by negative 
circumstances ; and, that a third, the rectification 
of signs, is only requisite when it is necessary to 
extend the induction to a great number of 
instances. 

The first table is the common form of classifi- 
cation by affirmative circumstances, and the four 
which follow it, (Nos. II, III, IV, V,) are its dif- 
ferent modifications. The nature of the operation 
performed by this table I have already explained.* 
The form is simple in its construction, and general 
in its application, but more fitted for digesting 
and arranging materials in their rougher state, 
than for perfecting the work of induction. It is 
sufficient that the instances have some common 
points of resemblance. Submitted to the operation 
of this table, the circumstances which they contain, 
will be assorted together according to their natural 
relations ; the circumstances being divided into dif- 
ferent classes, the process of exclusion will have been 
commenced, and the general connexion of the cir- 
cumstances of the same class being made to appear, 
the field of inquiry will become narrowed, and the 
work of induction half performed. But, as the sub- 
ject matter of inquiry is presented in different forms, 
so this table requires corresponding alterations in 

* Vide, Chap. I., page 26. 



88 METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 

order to be able to receive them. Thus No. I. is best 
suited for investigations consisting of numerous 
instances of few circumstances. With the view of 
saving room, the names of the instances are num- 
bered instead of being written ; should, however, 
any inconvenience attend this arrangement, the 
spaces of each instance may easily be left wide 
enough to receive the names. The open space * 
in the heading is left for the insertion of the 
subject of inquiry. In writing down the circum- 
stances of the first instance, it is more convenient 
to leave some lines blank, which allows the new 
circumstances of the following instances to stand 
in their proper order of conjunction-, whether of 
time or otherwise. 



METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



89 



No I. — General Form for the Analysis of any subject consisting of numerous instances of 

few circumstances. 



* 


1 




Classification 




II 

Signs of the circumstances as they present themselves in 
each Instance. 


of 
the Signs. 


~ 


H 


i — i 


j> 


> 


> 


i — i 
> 


3 
> 

H 


i 


x 
j 


x 

K 


i — i 
X 

L 


M 


X 

N 


> 

X 




> 

X 

p 


> 

X 


> 

X 


X 

X 


X 

X 


Circumstances. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


Q 


R 


s 


T 


t 
















































— 


— 


— 


— 


— 






























































































































- 


























































— 




































































































































— 


— 


— 


_ 


































— 












































— 












































































































































































































































— 


— 
























































































































































































































i 
















































































— 




































































































































































































— 




















































































— 


~~ 


— 























































































* The subject of investigation to be inserted in this open space. 

t Blank lines to be left between the circumstances of the first instances, in order to allow the 
new circumstances of other instances to be inserted in their proper order of time. 

H 



90 



METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



The second table contains two forms, and is 
suited to subjects where the instances are of the 
same description as those of the preceding table, 
not containing many circumstances, but where 
the instances themselves are not very numerous. 
The alteration is merely one in which the saving 
of space has been consulted. 

No. II. — Forms for the Analysis of any subject where the Instances are few, and the circumstances 

not numerous. 



* 


Classification 
of 


Instances. 


Instances. 


Classification 
of 


* 


The circumstances 
as presented in all 
the different in- 
stances. 


the Signs. 


! 
-is 


3 


> 


1 

1 


3 


> 


the Signs. 


The circumstances 
as presented in all 
the different in- 
stances. 


a'b 

1 


c 


D 


E 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 

&c. 


A 


B 


c 


D 
&c. 


a|b 


C 


D 


E 

&c 




I 




























































































































— 


— 


— 


























































1 




































1 































The third table introduces a more considerable 
change in the form, but without any change in the 
principle by which it operates. It has been re- 
sorted to solely for the purpose of saving room, 
and for preserving the table in a more compact 
form. It consists of a double series of signs, and 
of course of a double classification, but as the 
second series of signs are merely the Italic in 
correspondence with their respective Roman letters, 



METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



91 



the second classification is a continuation of the 
first, precisely the same as if continued in the 
same direction downwards. This table adapts 
itself conveniently to subjects of inquiry, where 
the instances consist of numerous circumstances, 
but the arrangement of the double signs affords 
many other facilities for investigating a subject 
by comparison, by contrast, and by allowing the 
order of time to be more correctly observed in the 
insertion of circumstances. 



No III. — Form for the Analysis of any subject, when the Instances consist of numerous 

circumstances. 



* 


< 


Classification 
of 


Instances. 




Classification 
of 


* 


All the circumstances 
which present them- 
selves in their dif- 
ferent Instances. 


the Signs. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 
&c. 


the Signs. 


Circumstances 
continued. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 

&G. 


A.a 


B.b 


C.c 


D.d 


E.e 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f 
&c. 













































































































































































































































































92 



METHODUS CONTABULAND1. 



The fourth table is another form to suit 
instances of the same description as the preceding, 
but where they are not very numerous. 

No. IV. — Form for the Analysis of any Subject where the Instances are few, but where 
they consist of numerous circumstances. 



* 


Classification 
of 


Instances. 


Instances. 


Classification 
of 


* 


the Signs. 




a 


> 




the Signs. 


The circumstances 
as they present 
themselves in dif- 
ferent instances. 


- 


K 


> 


> 


> 


> 


Circumstances 
continued. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c. 


A 


B 


c 


D 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c. 






































































































































































— 























































The fifth table is a form which combines the 
method of classification with a common register. 
This is done either by inserting the signs between 
the written lines, and by afterwards classifying the 
circumstances by the signs in the usual way ; or by 
leaving space large enough to write, in words, 
those circumstances which though indifferent, or 
of little importance in the investigation, are yet 
important to be recorded, and by denoting the 
other circumstances by signs for classification in 
the ordinary method of proceeding. 



METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



93 



N . V.^Form for combining the method of classification by affirmative 
circumstances with a common register. 



* 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


Instances. 


* 


~ 


1— 1 


> 


> 


!> 


g4 


Circumstances as 
they present them- 
selves in the dif- 
ferent instances. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 





























































































































































































































































Having by either of the preceding tables, which 
ever may best suit the nature of the instances, 
assorted the different circumstances of which they 
consist into classes, we are at liberty to pursue our 
induction directly onwards, by continuing the pro- 
cess of classification affirmatively through a greater 
number of instances ; or we may prefer bringing the 
inquiry at once to a conclusion, by subjecting the 
leading or principal class to the process of classi- 
fication by negative circumstances. In the former 
case we transfer the classified signs to a table of 
rectification. In the latter case we transfer the 



94 METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 

class of circumstances, which we wish to examine, 
to the sixth table, or to some of its modifications. 

In this latter table we entirely change the order 
of investigation, for, instead of making the instances 
serve for establishing classes as in the first process, 
they are the means by which we decompose the 
classes which we have already formed ; and the 
signs instead of denoting certain circumstances 
being present, do in this second process denote 
the absence of certain circumstances. And also, 
as by the first process, the preceding exclude the 
succeeding classes, so by the second process, the 
succeeding exclude the preceding classes. 

The subject of investigation may be already 
in such a state as to allow of the circumstances 
being at once submitted to the last process of 
exclusion, or classification by negative circum- 
stances, having been already, either by supposition 
or observation, connected together so as to form 
a class of which we wish to ascertain the relations, 
by examining their position in particular instances. 



METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



95 



No. VI. — General Form of Analysis where the Inquiry is limited ta a class, 
or to any given number, of Circumstances. 







to 

C 

bo 

CO 


Circumstances, 


Classj.-"- 


belonging to the class. 


occurring collaterally. 


Instances. 




















a 




















6 




















c 




















d 




















e 




















f 




















g 




















h 




















i 




















J 




















k 




















I 




















m 




















n 









































P 




















? 




















r 




















s 




















t$c. 


















o 

u 

O CO 

Q 


Class. 

a; 
a 
O 

3 
CO 


A 


















a 


















b 


















c 
















d 


















e 



















96 



METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



The sixth table, like the first, will admit of 
various modifications in order to fit it for receiving 
the classes of different circumstances. One of 
these, the seventh table, is the method of double 
signs adapted to inquiries where the circumstances 
are limited, but the instances very numerous. 



No. VII. — Form for the Analysis of a limited number of Circumstances, where 
the Instances are very numerous. 



* 


CO 

CO 


Circumstances. 


co 

C 


* 


Instances. 
















Instances. 




a 
















a 






b 
















b 






c&c. 
















cfyc. 




O 

• ^ be 

gto 

CO *^ 

6 


Class. 





















Class. 


Classification of 
the Signs. 


















(£ 

co 

CO 

"o 

1 

■§ 

CO 




















GO 
C 

cr 
a" 

to 

CO 
CD 
CO 





























































































The eighth table presents a form by which 
the second process of the induction, classification 
by negative circumstances, is combined with a 
common register in the same manner as in table 
No V. It is used by giving a common sign to 
the circumstances under investigation, which may 
themselves be considered of the same class hypo- 
thetically, and by changing the sign of the class 
for the sign of the instance wherever any of the 



METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



97 



circumstances are found deficient. — In the open 
space* of the heading, the subject of inquiry 1 is to 
be entered with the common sign affixed. 

No. VIII. — Form for combining the method of Classification by negative cir- 
cumstances with a common Register. 



* 


1 

'xft 


Circumstances. 


Instances. 
























a 


A 


A 


A 


A 


A 














b 




b 




b 


A 














c&c. 










c 












o 

J a, 

eC a) 
"55 -=3 
a 
O 


Class. 


A 


A 








































«5 

en 
en 
ei 
'(J 


b 




b 




b 














c 










c 





























































































It may be convenient or necessary, as has 
been already observed, before proceeding to the 
second process of induction, the classification by 
negative circumstances, to continue the classifi- 
cation affirmatively through a greater number of 
instances. The ninth table, therefore, affords the 
form for doing so by the process of rectifying the 
signs. This table also admits of various alterations 
in the construction, which may tend to facilitate its 
application to different subjects, but I think it 
superfluous to describe them. 



98 



METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



No. IX. — General Form for extending, by the process of Rectification, the Classification by affir- 
mative circumstances to a greater number of Instances. 



* 






Rectificatio 
of the 


n 




Classifications of Different Series of Instances. 


Different Series 

of 
Classifications. 


Series 
No. I. 


Series 
No. II. 




Circumstances 
as they present 
themselves in 
the different 
classifications. 


Series 
No. III. 




A 


B 


C 


D 


e|f 


G 


H 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 

&c 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


d|e 


F 

&c 





























































































































































































— 


— 


— 


— 






































































































































































































— 


— 


— 


— 


— 



























































































































- 


— 


— 


































































































































— 


— 


— 


— 


— 













































































































































































— 




- 


— 


— 







































































































- 






— 


— 




— 


— 




— 


— 




J 
















"I 




1 





METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 99 

Having subjected the instances which form the 
materials of the investigation, to the operation of 
the two opposite processes of classification, by 
affirmative and negative circumstances, we must 
now collect together the results of the analysis 
in such a manner that they may all stand related 
to each other according to their natural affinities, 
or as they have been found most constantly con- 
joined in the different instances. The tenth table 
(which from the assistance it affords for that 
process, has been called the table of Synthesis) 
presents a form to answer this object, where all 
the circumstances being arranged under the re- 
spective signs of their classes or sub-classes, we 
are able to trace the connexions which exist 
between them. I have often thought that it 
would be possible to represent these connexions by 
lines drawn between the circumstances related 
together, which all issuing from the class to which 
they belong, and diverging to the circumstances 
of the other classes and sub-classes, would form a 
kind of tree of natural relations. — It is unnecessary 
to repeat that the classes are those circumstances 
which, assorted together by the first process of 
classification, remain after the class has been 
submitted to the second process, whilst the sub- 
classes are the circumstances which have been 
separated from the class by that process. 



100 METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 

No. X.— SYNTHESIS. 



Classes. 


* Sub-Classes. 


A. 




a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


/,:** 










































B. 




a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f,&c. 








































C. 




a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


/Ac 










































D. 




a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


/,&• 










































E. 




a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


fAo. 











































METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



101 



As nothing assists analysis more than com- 
parison or makes us more intimately acquainted 
with individual instances and their particular dis- 
tinctions, I have thought it might be useful to 
subjoin some forms for comparing together dif- 
ferent series of instances, either collectively or 
individually, as well as for ascertaining the relative 
position and coincidence of their different circum- 
stances. Thus tables XI, XII and XIII are 
different forms for the first purpose ; and XIV and 
XV for the latter. 



No. XI. — Form for comparing two Series of Instances with one another, individually. 



* 


( 


Classification 
of 


Instances. 




Classification 
of 


* 


of the 

First Series. 


I. 


H. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 

&c. 


of the 
Second Series. 


Circumstances. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


A.a 


B.b 


C.c 


D.d 


E.e 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f 
&c. 


Circumstances. 




























































































































































— 


- 











































































































102 



METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



No. XII. — Form for comparing two Series of Instances with one another, collectively. 



* 


Classification 

of 

the Signs 

of the 

First Series. 


Instances. 


Instances. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs 

of the 

Second Series. 


* 


1 






1 






Circumstances. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c 


Circumstances- 






















— 



































































































































































































































































No. XIII. — Form for comparing with one another, individually, the Instance of two 

different series. 



* 


Classification 

of 

the Signs 

of the 

First Series. 


Instances. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs 

of the 

Second Series. 


* 












Circumstances. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 
&c. 


A.a. 


B.b. 


C.c. 


D.d. 


E.e. 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 
&c. 


Circumstances. 


































































































































































































































"1 





METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



103 



No. XIV. — Form for determining the Coincidence of two Series of Events or Circumstances. 









Series of Circumstances of which the order is best 
determined with their Signs. 


Instances. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII 

&c. 


Series of Circum- 
stances of which 
the order is most 
uncertain. 


A. 


B, 


C. 


D. 


E. 


F. 


G. 


H. 

&c. 






a 






















b 






















c 






















d 






















e 






















f 






















g 






















h 






















i 






















J 






















k 






















I 












- 










m 






















n 













































P 






















9. 






















r 























s 




















t fyc. 


















Combination of 
the signs of the 
prevailing coin- 
cidences. 













































































































104 



METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 



No. XV. — Form for examining a given Coincidence between two Series of 
Circumstances. 





Classification 

of 

the Signs 

of the 

First Series. 


Instances. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs 

of the 

Second Series. 




I. 


n. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 

&c. 


Circumstances. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


A.a 


B.b 


C.c 


D.d 


E.e 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


Circumstances. 











































































































































































































































105 



CHAPTER V. 

APPLICATION OF THE METHOD OF INDUCTION BY CLAS- 
SIFICATION TO PARTICULAR SUBJECTS. 



L' instrument universel ne peut devenir trop etendu, trop maniable. trop aise 
a appliquer a tout ce qu' on voudra : il est utile de 1'utilite de toutes les sciences 
qui ne scauroient se passer de son secours. Fonte.nelle. 



A very cursory view of the present state of those 
branches of knowledge derived purely from obser- 
vation, and, indeed, of some even of those which 
enjoy the privilege of experiment, must be sufficient 
to convince any one how much all might be im- 
proved by the application of a severe and correct 
analysis, and how much injury the greater number 
of them sustain from the neglect of it. And I am 
also inclined to think that the necessity of a more 
accurate induction is every day increasing, and has, 
in no inconsiderable degree, been produced by the 
desire and thirst after knowledge which distinguish 
the days in which we live ; for they have led to a 
hurried accumulation of matter without adequate 
care or judgment. Assertions have been received 
as facts upon insufficient evidence, and the love of 

K 



106 METHOD OF INDUCTION. 

what is new has too frequently obtained the ad- 
mission of what is false. Nor, when the method 
of observation has been true, has it always been 
judicious. Facts have been collected without re- 
ference to any use or object, have been heaped 
together without any order or arrangement, and 
have grown to a mass so disproportionate to the 
power of digesting and appropriating them, that 
we may almost apprehend from the confusion of 
our materials what was formerly suffered from the 
want of them.* From this admixture of error 
with truth, some branches of knowledge, being in- 
capable of practical applications, remain barren 
and unproductive, whilst others, oppressed with 
their burden of materials, are prevented from ad- 
vancing. It would be difficult to find in either of 
the great divisions of natural knowledge, moral or 
physical, an exception to these remarks ; but it is 
necessary that I should content myself with sug- 
gesting the application of this method of analysis 
only to a few particular subjects, rather because 
they stand the most in need of it, than that others 
might be less benefitted by it. 

* Talora vi cadra, in acconcio di paragonare lo sperimentatore 

all' uomo stravagante, che raccogliesse da per tutto, e amassasse 

materiali per fabbricare ; ma che tutto accozzando alia rinfusa, 

senza criterio e senza scelta, ingombrasse il terreno appunto su 

cui erger la fabbrica, o ne confondesse talmente i materiali, onde 

nissun partito trarre esso stesso, e lasciar i posteri nella impossi- 

bilita di trarne alcuno considerevole dalle sue fatiche. 

Rasori. 



MEDICINE. 107 



Section 1. — Medicine. 



I have placed medicine at the head of the 
subjects to which I would recommend the appli- 
cation of the method of analysis by classification, 
because I feel myself fully warranted, by long and 
ample experience, in affirming, that, whether it be 
considered in its scientific relations, or in its prac- 
tical details, no department of knowledge so ur- 
gently demands the wholesome reform of a close 
and scrutinising induction . 

Although the practice of medicine must be 
admitted to be unquestionably one of the most 
difficult of all the arts, it is still no easy matter to 
answer the question, which may very fairly be 
asked, why the art of physick, one of daily neces- 
sity and of daily exercise, should have improved 
so slowly, and been so devious and unsteady in its 
progress, and that after a written experience of 
more than two thousand years, it should still remain 
an instrument of such doubtful and uncertain ap- 
plication. I am by no means of opinion that the 
complex nature of the subject* which forms the 

* Subjectum istud medicines (corpus nimirum humanum) ex 
omnibus quae natura procreavit, maxime est capax remedii, et 
vicissim illud remedium maxime est obnoxium errori. Eadem 
namque subjecti subtilitas et varietas, ut magnam medendi 
facultatem praebet, sic magnam etiam aberrandi facilitatem. 
Quo circa quern admodum ars ista (quo praesertim nunc habetur 
modo) inter praecipue conjecturales ; ita inquisitio ejus reponenda 
est inter summe arduas et accuratas. 

k2 



108 STUDY OF MEDICINE. 

business of medical research and of medical ope- 
ration, furnishes a satisfactory explanation of this 
anomaly. The phenomena of health and of dis- 
ease, the effects of food, of remedies, and of every 
agent capable of exerting an influence upon the 
living body, are objects of simple observation, are 
as cognizable as any other class of facts, and as 
certainly subject to a regular order as any other 
series of events. No one, arguing only from the 
past, has a right to say that this order is beyond 
the reach of observation, or that it is impossible to 
establish certain fixed principles concerning the 
manner in which these phenomena and these 
effects have place. And, consequently, no one has 
a right to deny that it may yet be possible to 
establish corresponding principles concerning the 
manner of producing these phenomena by art, of 
preventing them from taking place, or "in quantum 
fert mortalium sors," of arresting their progress. 
If these propositions, which are the general and 
compressed argument of Cabanis, be fairly put, it 
follows, that the cause of the uncertainty of medi- 
cine is not so much to be sought for in the difficulty 
of the subject as in the manner of observing and 
of studying it. 

Medicine never continued long an art of un- 
biassed observation, and has never yet known the 
powerful and fertilizing influence of the inductive 
logic. In it no method of observation has been 



STUDY OF MEDICINE. 109 

made a rule of general use, but either, on the one 
hand, too nearly allied to philosophy, 

" premendo littus iniquum," 

it has been led astray by the fanciful doctrines of 
dogmatising theorists, or, on the other, too servilely 
enchained in the routine of art, " vaga enim expe- 
rientia et se tantum sequens," it has remained in a 
vicious circle of imitation. Independent observers, 
intuitively following the natural methods of their 
own suggestion, " ingenium rebus submittentem," 
have at distant times appeared scattered like the 
Oases of the desert ; and though they have never 
failed to give a remarkable impulse to the progress 
of medicine, their disciples have not long pursued 
the track opened for them by the genius of the 
master, and the method and the example have 
gradually fallen into disuse and neglect. The con- 
sequence of this is, that the age of experience in 
medicine is almost limited to the life of each indi- 
vidual, and, instead of resembling a stream, gra- 
dually enlarging as it descends, by fresh accessions 
of knowledge, it consists of insulated parts, often 
in opposition, seldom in correspondence with each 
other. 

It is therefore not without good reason, that one 
of the most sensible philosophers of our days has 
observed, that although " there is hardly any one 
branch of human knowledge in which men in 
general are more disposed to boast of the lights of 



110 MEDICAL EVIDENCE. 

experience than in the practice of medicine, it 
would perhaps have been better for the world if 
some qualifying epithet had been invariably added 
to the word experience, to show with how very 
great latitude it is to be understood when applied 
to the evidence on which the physician proceeds in 
the exercise of his art." " The truth is," he con- 
tinues, "that even on the most favourable sup- 
position this evidence, so far as it rests on expe- 
rience, is weakened or destroyed by the uncertain 
conditions of any new case to which his former 
results are to be applied ; and that without a pecu- 
liar sagacity and discrimination in marking not 
only the resembling but the characteristical features 
of disorders, classed under the same technical name, 
his practice cannot with propriety be said to be 
guided by any one rational principle of decision, 
but only by blind and random conjecture. The 
more successfully this sagacity and discrimination 
are exercised, the more nearly does the evidence 
of medical practice approach to that of experience ; 
but in every instance without exception, so immense 
is the distance between them, as to render the 
meaning of the word experience, when applied to 
medicine, essentially different from its import in 
those sciences, where it is possible for us, in all 
cases, by due attention to the circumstances of an 
experiment, to predict its result with an almost in- 
fallible certainty."* It was probably the same 

* Stewart's Philosophy of the Human Mind. 



NEGLECT OF ANALYSIS IN MEDICINE. Ill 

view of medical evidence which led the celebrated 
La Place to convey that severe censure on the 
practice of medicine, of proposing to submit it to 
the mathematical doctrine of chances. 

But it must be recollected that these opinions 
are only well founded when confined to the past 
and present method of medical research, and that 
they fall to the ground if meant to deny the pos- 
sible improvement of evidence in medicine under 
the influence of a successful induction. Medicine 
is not a science of experience in the same sense as 
the other sciences, for no other reason than because 
the instrument and the art of experience have never 
yet been applied to it. Were it possible to place 
medical facts within the grasp of induction, medi- 
cine must necessarily stand on the same footing as 
any other science of observation, perhaps of expe- 
riment. The materials of experience are not 
wanting. The stores are ample and well fur- 
nished. Every day is busy in producing more, 
and perhaps of a better kind. There is nothing 
intrinsically in the nature of the facts which are of 
the province of medicine which prevents them 
from being analysed and reduced to order, and 
from being thus made to contribute more or less to 
the common stock of experience. The analysis of 
medical observations is no doubt beset with some 
difficulties which are only to be overcome by the 
united labours of many, and by repeated efforts ; 
but if this important work was only undertaken in 



112 HOPES FROM ANALYSIS IN MEDICINE. 

a right spirit, and steadily persevered in — if the 
method of observing was reformed, if the obser- 
vations were subjected to the assay of a searching 
induction, it is impossible to foretell what might be 
the happy results ; and certainly not before such a 
trial has been fairly made, is it allowable to say, 
that medicine cannot be elevated to the rank of 
the other sciences. This is no new view of the 
matter, no enthusiastic anticipation, the offspring of 
a new theory. It is the opinion of Sydenham* and 
Baglivi,f equally disciples of Hippocrates and of 
Bacon, and the two most illustrious names, who, 

* Si vel unus tantum per singula mundi secula hoc modo 
unicum tractaverit morbum, medendi ars, (quae medicorum est 
provincia,) a multis retro annis ad aKfirfp pervenisset, omnibus 
absoluta numeris, saltern in quantum fert mortalium sors. 

•f Enim vero dum tota medicinae prudentia in eo posita videatur, 
ut morbum cum morbo, tempus cum tempore, hominem cum 
homine compares, quo advenientia, et crescentia mala suis certis 
signis, ac nominibus ea distinguere, iisdemque idonea aptave re- 
media adhibere queas, nemo certe inficias iverit, nullam prorsus, 
et nobilissimae scientise exornandse, et curandis hominibus utili- 
orem operam navari posse, quam si praestantissimae artis studiosi, 
immenso retro tempore jam factas a majoribus nostris obser- 
vationes attenderent, novasque in dies animadverterent ac nota- 
rent. Quam quidem promovendae artis rationem, si jam inde ab 
Hippocratis temporibus ad hanc nostram usque aetatem constanter 
homines retinuissent, dici vix potest, quot quantique progressus 
hac hodie parte haberentur. Cum vero rem alioqui adeo neces- 
sariam, tarn praeclaram, atque ita feliciter institutam reliquerint, ut 
se infinitis et (ut Apostoli verbis utar) interminatis qucestionibus, 
XoyofiaKiag implicarent, aliam afferre causam non possem, quam 
offensi, ac ulsciscentis Numinis iram. 



PRINCIPLE OF IMITATION IN MEDICINE. 113 

since the revival of letters, have honoured and 
adorned our art. 

When these researches first occupied my atten- 
tion, it is fit to confess that my hopes of the ad- 
vancement of medicine were neither sanguine nor 
consoling, but on the contrary, having long been 
disappointed with the results which follow the syn- 
thetical method in the study as well as in the 
practice of physick, I found myself obliged to ac- 
knowledge that the only way to increase the cer- 
tainty of our art, was to return directly to a state 
of pure empyricism, (confining that term to its 
original and literal meaning.) I was reduced to 
the opinion that precision in practice could only 
be ensured by a kind of imitation or transduction 
from one individual case to another, instead of 
raising general principles from many individual 
cases, and again applying these principles to new 
cases. In short, forgetting that the disappoint- 
ments of which I had to complain, might with 
more justice be attributed to want of skill in the 
artists, than to want of power in the art, " errores 
non artis sed artificum," I utterly despaired of ever 
beholding the practice of medicine proceed in the 
broad day-light of induction, and was fully pre- 
pared to confine myself to the humbler but more 
practical method of imitation, of which, as has 
been already observed, Lord Bacon has left us an 
outline in his " experie'ntia liter ata" It was in 
endeavouring to perfect this method, and adapt it 



114 OPINION OF CABANIS 

more particularly to the practice of medicine, that 
I was led to the tabular analysis. And having 
considered the nature of the subject with more 
attention, and viewed it in all its bearings, and 
having seen reason for better hopes in the in- 
creasing resources of induction, of which, as has 
been already observed, the practice of medicine 
has yet felt the influence only imperfectly, I am 
encouraged to indulge the most confident expect- 
ations ; and, in availing myself of the words, I am 
inclined to adopt the opinion of Cabanis, in its 
fullest extent. 

" Oui, j'ose le predire : avec le veritable esprit 
d' observation, l'esprit philosophique qui doit y pre- 
sider va renaitre dans la medecine ; la science va 
prendre une face nouvelle. On reunira ses frag- 
mens epars, pour en former un systeme simple et 
fecond comme les lois de la nature. Apres avoir 
parcoura tous les faits ; apres les avoir revus, veri- 
fies, compares, on les enchainera, on les rapportera 
tous a un petit nombre des point fixes, ou peu 
variables. On perfectionnera l'art de les etudier, 
de les lier entre eux par leurs analogies, ou par 
leurs differences, d'en tirer des regies generates, 
qui ne seront que leur enonce meme, mais plus 
precis. On simplifiera surtout l'art, plus important 
et plus difficile, de faire l'application de ces regies a 
la pratique. Alors, chaque medecin ne sera pas 
force de se creer ses methodes et ses instrumens ; 
d'oublier ce qu'on apprend dans les ecoles, pour 



ON FUTURE PROGRESS OF MEDICINE. 115 

chercher dans ses propres sensations ce qu'il de- 
manderoit vainement a celles d'autrui; je veux dire 
des tableaux, non seulement bien circonstancies et 
d'une verite scrupuleuse, mais formant un tout dont 
les diverses parties soient coordonnees. Alors, il 
ne sera plus necessaire que le talent se mette sans 
cesse a la place de l'art : l'art ou contraire dirigera 
toujours le talent, le fera naitre quelquefois, sem- 
blera meme en tenir lieu. Non que je croie possible 
de suppleer, par la precision des procedes, a la 
finesse du tact, et aux combinaisons dun genie 
heureux : mais le tact ne sera plus egare par des 
images vagues, et incoherentes, ni le genie enchaine 
par des regies frivoles et trompeuses ; ils ne ren- 
contreront plus, ni l'un ni l'autre, aucun obstacle a 
leur entier developpement. Alors, des esprits medi- 
ocres feront peut etre avec facilite ce que des 
esprits eminens ne font aujourd'hui qu'avec peine : 
et la pratique depouillee de tout ce fatras etranger 
qui 1'ofFusque, se reduisant a des indications simples, 
distinctes, methodiques, acquerra toute la certitude 
que comporte la nature mobile des objets sur les- 
quels elle s'exerce." 

But, concerning the views which I entertain of 
the means of advancing the progress of medicine, 
I think it proper to explain that it is not from the 
cultivation of medicine in specialties and dismem- 
bered parts that I augur much good. Indeed I 
am not aware of any thins; which has been more 
adverse to the diffusion of correct notions, and 



I 

116 OF THE MEANS OF IMPROVING 

more opposed to the establishment of truth in 
medicine, than the division of its study into 
different branches, thus separating the consi- 
deration of the causes of disease from the 
phenomena which they present, and from the 
method of treating them. It is essential to 
successful practice that all their parts should be 
preserved in exact correspondence with each 
other. Diseases must be considered and contem- 
plated entire in all their parts, and complete in all 
their circumstances, from their origin to their 
termination. 

I am therefore not of the number of those who ex- 
pect that the power of medicine in controlling dis- 
ease's to be greatly increased or extended by curative 
indications deduced from the phenomena which 
the scalpel can disclose. These, at best, can 
present only a fraction of the data upon which 
must be founded any deduction for the suc- 
cessful treatment of a disease. If I do not much 
mistake, the assistance to be derived from the 
study of morbid anatomy, can be only indirect, 
and must be confined to the help it may afford 
towards individualising diseases, if I may so speak ; 
for by demanding a closer observation of parti- 
cular cases it may facilitate the application of 
specific methods of treatment to specific cases. 
But the practical application of remedies must be 
deduced from the knowledge of their effect upon 
the living body in cases as nearly similar as 



THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. 117 

can be asertained by observation, not from the 
relation of any remedy to the appearances which 
may be found in the dead subject. "A certis 
potius et exploratis petendum esse presidium ; id 
est, his quae experientia in ipsis curationibus 
docuerit." 

In like manner I have little hopes of the 
improvement of medicine by the exclusive study 
of therapeutics. Some physicians would have us 
think that the power of medicine is to be vastly 
enlarged by the discovery of specific remedies 
for particular diseases, or of new agents capable 
of modifying or removing diseased actions. But 
the experience of ages forbids us to indulge in 
these expectations Not more than two or three 
such remedies are known to exist. And although it 
may be unphilosophical to deny that more may yet 
be formed in the great store-house of nature, 
it is surely more prudent to make a proper use 
of the means of which we are already possessed, 
than to neglect them for dreams of hidden 
treasure. It is surely more wise to avail ourselves 
of the resources we can command, by endeavouring 
to increase the certainty and safety of their use 
and application, that by establishing more definite 
relations between particular cases, and particular 
cures, all which the sick suffer from error or 
misapplication, may be spared them. 

The means which my views of the improvement 
of medicine embrace are neither many nor com- 



118 OF THE RIGHT METHOD 

plicated. They may be comprehended in a few 
words, — true, distinct, circumstantial observation, — 
clear, severe, searching analysis. I do not wish 
it to be imagined that I would reject any 
elucidations which the collateral sciences are 
capable of furnishing. So far as these explain and 
illustrate the symptoms of diseases they increase 
the circumstances and extend the means of distin- 
guishing them. In this way, chemistry, experi- 
mental philosophy, and some other sciences, may 
supply us with useful assistance. But the danger is 
of allowing these means to rank above their proper 
subordinate position ; for the most baneful con- 
sequences have been the result, where practical 
conclusions have been deduced from such data. 
" Rationalem quidem puto medicinam esse debere ; 
instrui vero ab evidentibus causis, obscuris omnibus 
non a cogitatione artificis sed ab ipsa arte rejectis." 

An improved method of the study and, conse- 
quently, of the practice of medcine is, however, 
only to be expected from an improved method 
of education. My meaning will be quite mis- 
understood, if it is supposed that I imagine, that 
such an object can in any degree be obtained 
by the additional studies which have of late years 
been imposed upon those qualifying themselves 
for the practice of the healing art, in all its 
different branches. No doubt such studies may 
contribute much to the general accomplishment 
of the physician, and, giving him a more entire 



OF STUDYING MEDICINE. 119 

view of nature, by enlarging his comprehension, 
may increase his resources. But these advantages, 
seldom felt by more than a few individuals happily 
gifted, are altogether subordinate to the principle 
object of medical education considered in relation 
to the many. My notions of the improvement 
of medical education are in every respect opposed 
to these alterations, and relate more to the 
method of teaching, than to the matter which 
is taught. It seems indeed to me by far more 
natural that the student should pursue the 
same course in acquiring the knowledge of his 
profession in the schools, which he must in 
after life follow in his practice, and that the 
synthetical teaching from the chair should be 
replaced by analytical observation in the hos- 
pital. I cannot help thinking that instead of 
acquiring a superficial acquaintance of sciences, 
sometimes remote, generally irrelevant, and which 
do certainly in many instances tend to establish 
habits of the mind by no means favourable to 
the practical details of medicine, it would be a 
more advantageous employment of the period 
of study, if the pupil were instructed and ex- 
ercised in the right use and application of the 
true method of observation, which in active 
life must be the guide and the instrument of 
his professional labours. What would be said of 
a method of teaching any art in which every 
thing was attended to, except the easy and skilful 



120 PLAN OF AN ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 

manner of handling the tools and utensils which 
the artist must employ ! Such a preposterous manner 
of proceeding could not be more inconsistent than 
what is to this very day committed in the method 
of teaching the practice of the art of physic, 
where the inductive logic which must preside 
over and regulate the reasoning of the physician, 
forms no part of any system of medical education. 
And indeed I must own that the habits of the 
mind which the practice of medicine demands, 
and consequently tends to produce, is a cir- 
cumstance but very imperfectly understood, and 
has by no means received that attention which 
both as an object of interest and as a matter of 
usefulness, it is equally entitled to. 

But the method of observation would be best 
taught by example in the practice of an hospital, 
and were hospitals organized upon proper prin- 
ciples, with a due regard to the patient, the pupil, 
and the public, all their details might be made 
subservient to one general method of observation, 
and the whole might present a continued process 
of analysis. 

In sketching the following plan of an analytical 
hospital, I think it proper to premise that I 
entertain no notion so visionary as to hope to 
see it carried into effect. I have not known 
the profession of medicine more than twenty 
years to remain ignorant of the invincible prejudices 
of habit. But still I am not the less convinced 



ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 121 

that until this, or some other method of teaching 
medicine inductively, shall come into general use, 
the public must be content to suffer from the 
misapplication of the art, and Medicine must 
endure the dishonour. 

I am of opinion that the student having been 
thoroughly disciplined in classical and mathema- 
tical learning, (quamvis non faciat medicum, ap- 
tiorem tamen medicince reddit,) and having been pre- 
pared by an adequate acquaintance with anatomy, 
physiology, chemistry, and materia medica, should 
at once proceed to the hospital. It is there, I think, 
that his knowledge of diseases ought to commence, 
so that he might know nothing of their symptoms 
by name, before he has made himself familiar 
with the reality. The symptoms of disease should 
be first demonstrated to him on the living subject, 
after the manner of teaching natural history, 
and not until he has acquired a distinct notion 
of them and understood them accurately, ought 
he to learn the names by which they are technically 
distinguished.* He should first become acquainted 

* Les connoissances qu'on acquiert dans les ecoles, ou dans 
les livres, ne peuvent donner ni cultiver la sagacite des sens : — 
Les vraies connoissances de notre art ne sont qu'un ensemble, 
plus ou moins complet, des sensation recuillies au lit des mala- 
des ; ces sensations ne peuvent etre fournies, que par les objets 
memes qui les produisent. Ainsi la lecture, a proprement parler, 
ne nous enseigne, en quelque sorte, que ce que nous savons deja. 

Cabanis* 
L 



122 ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 

with diseases in individual cases and afterwards 
proceed by degrees to their common features and 
generic characters, according to the natural order 
of induction. The distribution and classification 
of the cases of disease in the different wards, 
ought to be such as to favor this method of study. 
Thus the same diseases, or those allied to each other, 
should be placed together, that the mind being 
occupied with one class of diseases might become 
fully conversant with them ; whilst the comparison 
of individual cases of the same disease being 
forced upon the attention by their juxta-position, 
would point out their peculiarities and specifical 
distinctions, and would explain and account for the 
exceptions and modifications of the general method 
of treatment. 

In such an hospital, every ward ought to have 
its own physician, and every physician should 
be a professor of clinical medicine, who with 
his pupils, all mutually cooperating with each 
other, should form a well organised corps of 
observers. The students should be divided into 
two classes, senior and junior, and every case 
of disease should be entrusted to two students, 
one of each class. The senior student should 
be accustomed to demonstrate and explain the 
symptoms and phenomena of disease to his junior 
colleague, and it should be the duty of both to 
register and report, with fidelity and correctness, 
every circumstance as it presents itself in the 
course of the disease. To monitors or students 



ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 123 

still more advanced should be committed the 
task of observing and recording all the general 
and common circumstances having an influence 
upon all the diseases, as the weather, temperature 
of the air, temperature of the ward, the prevailing 
constitution of the atmosphere, and such like ; 
and to other monitors should be entrusted the 
superintendence of all the journals, and the care 
of analysing the different cases. To the physician 
himself should exclusively belong the direction 
of the treatment, and explanatory lectures on 
the nature of the diseases. He should point 
out, by comparing and contrasting different cases 
of the same disease, their general resemblance 
and their particular distinctions; and, in order 
to be assured that the subordinate duties were 
punctually performed, the students should be 
subjected to occasional examinations. 

On each case being received into the ward, 
the causes or circumstances preceding the disease, 
the particulars of any previous treatment, and 
the period of the disease, should be minutely 
investigated and carefully noted, and, as the 
disease proceeded, every symptom which it pre- 
sented, every agent of whatever kind capable 
in any way of influencing the disease and the 
effects of such agents, should be scrupulously 
watched and distinctly described. On the case 
being brought to a termination, whether successful 
or otherwise, the history of it should be handed 



124 ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 

over to the monitor charged with the duty of 
analysis. By submitting the case to the operation 
of the analytical table, he would easily determine 
the relations of its different circumstances to 
one another, and the agreement or disagreement 
of the circumstances of different cases of the 
same disease, and he would thus learn to draw 
accurate and well founded conclusions accordingly. 
This office should be filled by the best instructed 
pupil, that, in this manner, every student rising 
gradually from the simple to the analytical ob- 
server, would be initiated in the art of correct 
observation, and, having thus been daily exercised 
in the practice of induction, would pass from 
the hospital to the world, well trained in the use 
of that instrument which must be the guide of his 
professional life. 

Having studied the diseases of one ward and 
gradually risen from the lowest to the highest 
station of observation, the pupil should proceed 
to study the diseases of another ward, under 
another professor of clinical medicine, and so 
on successively, until having become familiar with 
the diseases of all the wards, his course of clinical 
education would be completed. It would then 
be the fit time for him to listen to the gene- 
ralities of the chair, to hear all that is known, 
all the opinions which have been entertained, 
of the nature of diseases, and all the various 
methods which have been suggested or followed 



ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 125 

for their cure. Or, instead of reserving a general 
course of lectures on the practice of Medicine for 
the termination of the clinical studies, each clinical 
professor might partly provide for this object by 
delivering lectures on the general nature of the 
diseases of his wards, as well as particular lectures 
on individual cases of disease, as is at present the 
custom. Under either plan, the student will be in 
a position to derive the full advantage of such 
lectures ; for, understanding the language of the 
art, and being able to compare what is said with 
what he has seen, he will begin to exercise his own 
judgment and to appeal to his own experience. 

In order, however, to give unity to the plan and 
co-operation to the parts of such an analytical 
hospital, it would be important that all the 
machinery should be under the regulating control 
of one directing head, to whom all should be 
amenable for the right performance of their re- 
spective duties. This directing physician might be 
charged with the general lectures on the practice of 
medicine, but his chief business ought to be to 
inspect the patients on their reception into the 
hospital, to distribute them to their appropriate 
wards, and to register, in a book kept for that 
purpose, every particular concerning them which 
it may be important to record. As each case was 
brought to a termination, the nature of the event 
should be reported to him, and the patients being 
examined by him on their discharge, as well as on 



126 ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 

their entrance, he would have a checque on the 
practice of the different physicians, without, how- 
ever, interfering with them in the general manage- 
ment of their wards, or in the particular treatment 
of the diseases. Besides this, at stated periods, the 
physician of each ward should be required to 
submit to the directing physician full analytical 
reports of the diseases treated in each ward ; which 
being circumstantial, might be at last incorporated 
with the general analysis of each disease, and 
ought to be carefully preserved in the archives of 
the hospital. These successive processes being 
performed analytically, their recorded results would 
occupy a comparatively trifling volume, and each 
hospital would thus be in possession of a code 
of experience, every day extending the usefulness, 
and diminishing the uncertainty, of the art of 
physick. 



ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 



127 



Form for the Medical Archives of an 
Experience in Diseases, 


Hospital, for recording 
Analytically deduced. 


the results of 


* 


Classes. Sub-Classes. 


A. 


t 


4- 


a 




b 




C 


4. 


d, fyc. 


t 




t 




t 






































B. 






a 




b 




c 




d, fyc. 






















































C. 






a 




b 




c 




d,8?c. 






















































D. 






a 




b 




c 


d, Sfc. 






















































E. 






a 




b 




c 




d, fyc. 





















































* Name of Disease to be inserted in this space. 

t The circumstances or particulars of the disease to be inserted in these columns, 
each under their respective signs, and according to their relation to each other, as 
determined by analysis. 

\ These columns are for the insertion of references to the cases, or series of cases, 
in which the circumstances have been found. 



128 ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 

In this manner also, each physician would be 
subject to a proper responsibility in the discharge 
of his duties, and the estimation of his practice 
being founded on the circumstances of the cases 
and not on the event alone, his professional cha- 
racter would not be decided as heretofore, by the 
uncertain evidence of single cases, but his merits 
would be established upon the general tenour of 
his practice. "Medicus et fortasse politicus, vix 
habet actiones aliquas proprias, quibus specimen 
artis et virtutis suae liquido exhibeant ; sed ab 
eventu praecipue honorem aut dedecus reportant, 
iniquissimo prorsusjudicio" And I must take leave 
to say that such a measure of responsibility is only 
in justice demanded of those who fill a situation so 
important to society, as that of physician to a 
public hospital.* 

* Fide, Form p. 129. 



ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 



129 



ifHOoa 



> 8"^| 



w 



o 



td 



Signs. 












a 



Ess 

? 2 £ 






130 NEGLECT OF INDUCTION IN UNIVERSITIES. 

I cannot help expressing my regret that the 
opportunities lately afforded in establishing the 
medical schools of the London University and 
King's College, have not been made use of to intro- 
duce an example of the method of teaching medicine 
analytically : and that a fresher spirit of analysis, 
more becoming the temper of the age, had not more 
generally pervaded the organization of these in- 
stitutions. It is, indeed, full time that the spirit of 
the Novum Organon presided more entirely over 
the constitution of our public academies, and that 
a chair, at least, was exclusively devoted to teaching 
explaining, and cultivating the vast resources of the 
inductive philosophy. It is not easy to calculate 
what might have been the general and remote con- 
sequences of a practical example of medical induc- 
tion, but those who are at all conversant with the 
matter, can have little hesitation in admitting, that, 
by sending into the world men well exercised in the 
practical details of medicine, and already accom- 
plished in the method of correct observation, the 
interests of society at large would have been most 
wisely consulted, and such advantages, not to be 
obtained elsewhere, would have most certainly 
ensured the success of these institutions. 

It appears to me this method of acquiring the 
knowledge of the practice of medicine, might also 
be sufficiently well pursued in apprenticeships, 
were their terms and conditions reformed and 
placed upon a proper footing; the duties of the 



IMPROVEMENT OF MEDICAL APPRENTICESHIPS. 131 

master being made as imperative as those of the 
pupil. Thus, if no one was admissible as an 
apprentice, until he had, after a proper classical 
education, attended courses of anatomy, chemistry, 
and materia medica, he would be prepared for 
entering upon the observation of disease, and 
might pass two or three years under the super- 
intendence of a practitioner, whose duty it should 
be, instead of only confining him as at present 
to the drudgery of pharmacy, to demonstrate and 
explain to him the phenomena of disease, and the 
methods of treatment, thus serving, as it were, for 
his clinical guide. Nor ought apprentices to be 
confined only to general practitioners. Physicians 
ought also to have their apprenticed pupils, which, 
by the nature of the present regulations and in- 
stitutions, is denied them. 



In order to promote the use of a better analysis, 
and facilitate the application to medicine of the 
method of induction by classification, I have drawn 
up the following plan of a book of analysis, that 
any medical observer may at once be able to 
construct and prepare one for his own use. 



THE BOOK 



OF 



MEDICAL ANALYSIS, 



OR 



GUIDE 



FOR STUDYING 



FAITHFULLY FROM NATURE. 



5 Ev v6i>) Kai ra wepi vovohiv irjaiog, ko\ ol roiovreiav rpo7roi, baay&qi 
xal ov rpoTTov 7repi iicaoTMv ij(pvaiv' clvti) yap apx*) * v iflrpnci|, nal 
fit<xa xal tiXoq. 

IIHIOKPATHS mpl EYSXEM0SYNH2. 



DIRECTIONS 



FOR THE USE OF 



THE BOOK OF ANALYSIS. 



In order to ensure true and correct results by 
this method of analysis, it is first necessary to 
collect full, entire, and circumstantial histories of 
particular cases of disease, and it is next of 
importance to use, as near as possible, the same 
terms, for the same circumstances, whether they 
be causes, symptoms, or remedies. But it is not 
meant to exclude those variations of expressions, 
and shades of distinctions which lead to fine and 
delicate observation, for these may be faithfully 
given by the modifications of the signs as has been 
already explained.* 

As I have not yet been able to succeed in 
making the analytical table serve the purpose of a 
daily journal of cases, so as to carry on the 
analysis from day to day, through the whole 
history of the disease, (which would indeed be to 
give it the highest degree of perfection,) it will be 
necessary that the observer should select from 

* Vide supra, Chap. I. 



2 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 

cases, either detailed by others, or observed by 
himself, every particular or circumstance which 
can be supposed to have any influence on the 
results, and insert them in order, in such an 
analytical form, as may seem best adapted to the 
case. As soon as a case of disease presents itself 
for observation, he will appropriate a form to that 
disease, by writing its name in the open space* 
left for that purpose, and proceed to write down, 
in the column of circumstances/)* the causes of the 
disease, whether predisposing or exciting, the 
symptoms in their order of succession, the par- 
ticulars of the method of treatment, the effects of 
remedies, the nature of the event, and the duration 
of the disease. Opposite to each of these cir- 
cumstances, he will place the sign of the case in 
its proper column.^f That similar circumstances of 
different cases may succeed each other in the 
order of their occurrence, it is convenient to leave 
open lines for their insertion, between the circum- 
stances of the first cases, and, as the period of the 
disease in which these circumstances occur may 
constitute an important element in the induction, it 
may be expressed by placing the day of the disease, 
in figures, over the sign of the circumstance. It 
will thus be easy to perceive how the same circum- 
stance varies in different cases, as to the period of 
the disease in which it takes place, and to trace the 
influence of this variation upon the consecutive 
circumstances. . 

*. f, ^f. Vide infra, Forms for the analysis of diseases, 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. *> 

When another case of the same disease is sub- 
mitted to examination, the circumstances are to be 
selected as in the first case. Those which have 
already been found in the first case will be ex- 
pressed by repeating the sign of that case in the 
column of the second case, but such as have not 
been found before in the first case, must be written 
down in the column of circumstances, and have 
the sign of the second case placed against them in 
its proper column. This process, the translation 
of circumstances into signs, is to be repeated, in 
the same manner, in all the subsequent cases, so 
that the same circumstance in every case may be 
invariably denoted by the same sign, but different 
circumstances by different signs, each proper to 
the case in which it occurs. But as the same 
circumstance may present itself in different cases, 
in a less or a greater degree, it is proper that 
this should be distinguished and denoted by the 
signs of modifications, according to the principles 
explained in the first chapter.* 

So soon as a table has received its complement 
of cases, the signs of the circumstances are to be 
collected together and classified, by placing under 
its proper sign, in the column of classification, the 
number of times the sign of any circumstance has 
been found in all the instances. This operation, as 
I have already explained,! shows what circum- 
stances are connected together, and which have no 

* Vide Chap. I. f Vide, Chap. I. 



4< BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 

relation to each other. If the observer thinks that 
the cases examined afford sufficient data for his in- 
vestigation, or that any class (such as are denoted 
by the same sign being considered to belong to the 
same class) indicates a connection existing between 
its circumstances sufficiently strong for a more 
particular scrutiny, he will then submit it to the 
second process of analysis, or exclusion by negative 
circumstances. This is performed by transfering 
the circumstances of the class to a table of the 
second form, by comparing them in new cases, 
and by changing the sign according to the rule 
given above.* 

But if it should appear that the cases of one 
table do not afford data sufficiently extensive for 
deducing a conclusion, or that the classes of cir- 
cumstances do none of them indicate relations 
worthy of further research, a new table must be 
opened for receiving another series of cases of the 
same disease ; the classified signs of which must be 
placed in correspondence with those of the first 
table by the method of rectification as already 
explained.* By this plan the observer may con- 
tinue his classification to a very great number of 
cases, and, being able to put them all in cor- 
respondence with each other, he will perceive 
the relations which connect together the circum- 
stances of the same class; and by submitting 
any class to the second process of analysis, he 

* Chap. I. 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. O 

will discover the conditions and combinations 
which unite any particular circumstance with the 
other circumstances of its class. Having sub- 
jected every class to this process, the results may 
be transferred to a table of the fourth form, where 
the circumstances of the different classes and sub- 
classes being all arranged under their respective 
signs, will be presented in the natural order of 
their relations, and will allow all the connections 
existing between them to be easily traced. 

I have already stated that the period of the 
disease in which any circumstance occurs, may be 
expressed by placing the day of the disease over 
the sign of the circumstance, but the difference of 
acute and chronic diseases in this respect may 
require some modification in the form of their 
tables. This has led me to construct some tables 
with a column for inserting either the period of the 
disease in which a circumstance presents itself, or 
the limits of time between which it ranges. This 
modification of the general form may be applied 
accordingly as it is found more or less convenient. 

Besides analyzing diseases in this manner, the 
observer may find it necessary to institute com- 
parisons between different cases of the same disease, 
or between different series of cases, either collec- 
tively or individually, according as he may wish to 
trace the influence of different causes in the same 
disease, or to estimate the merits of different 
methods of treatment. Convenient modifications 
have been adopted to this object. The manner of 



6 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 

using them being precisely the same as for the 
analysis, their applications will easily suggest them- 
selves. 

There are always other collateral inquiries 
which present themselves to the medical observer, 
in the course of his investigations of disease, such 
as the general effects of particular medicines, the 
connection between symptoms of diseases and the 
morbid alterations of structure found on dissection, 
the coincidence of stethosopic signs with certain 
diseases of the chest, and many other similar re- 
searches which it may be desirable to promote. 
Appropriate forms have therefore been prepared for 
these purposes, which there can be no difficulty in 
applying to the particular subjects. 

That nothing worthy of observation may escape 
attention, or be passed over, I recommend blank 
pages to be provided at the end of the book of 
analysis, for the purpose of writing, at full length, 
descriptions of any striking or remarkable cases or 
circumstances of a disease, and if to this be ap- 
pended a proper analytical index of all the diseases 
examined, and of all their circumstances, alpha- 
betically arranged, the observer, whether student 
or practitioner, will have provided for himself a 
body of experience of his own, easy to be con- 
sulted, such as no other method of study is ca- 
pable of communicating. 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



FORM I. a. — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Cases are 
the Circumstances of each case comparatively few. 


numerous but 


* 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


Cases. 


Causes, predisposing and exciting ; 
Symptoms in their order, duration, 
and period ; Method of treatment, 
Nature of Event, Duration of dis- 
ease. 


H 


P 


C 


< 
D 


< 
E 


< 
F 


< 
G 


< 
H 


>< 
I 


o 

7 

&c 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 

&c. 


A 


B 


t 





























































































































































































I. b. — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where it is particularly desirable to mark 
the period, or the range of the periods, of the Circumstances. 



* 


Days 

of 

the 

Disease. 


( 


Classification 


Cases. 


Circumstances. 


the Signs. 


- 


s 


« 


> 


> 


> 


> 


> 


7 

&c 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 

fee. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 






















































































- 


— 


- 


— 






— 


- 


— 





















































I. c. — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Cases as well as their Cir- 
cumstances are comparatively few. 





Classification 
of 


Cases. 


Cases. 


Classification 
of 


* i 


Circumstances 


the Signs. 


~ 


P 


? 


< 


<! 


- 


i — i 


H 


> 


>' 


the Signs. 


Circumstances. 


A 


B 


C 


D 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 

&c. 




































































































i 
































8 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



FORM I. d. — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Cases, as well as their 
circumstances, are comparatively few, but where it is necessary to mark the periods of the 
circumstances. 



* 


1 

Cases. 


Cases. 


1 


Circumstances. 


Days 

of the 
Disease. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


J~ 


£ 


<! 


A 


K 


g 


> 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


Days 

of the 
Disease. 


Circumstances. 


A 


B 


C 


D 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 

&c. 


B 


C 


D 


A 


B 


C 


D 

Sec. 








1 


































| 


































































1 
























— 














1 



















I. e.—For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Cases, as well as their circumstances, 
are comparatively numerous. 



Causes, predisposing 

and exciting : 

Symptoms, their order, 

duration, and period. 



Classification 

of 

the Signs. 



A B;C Dj 

&c 



Cases. 



B.b. 



III. 



C.c. 



IV. 



D.d 



E.6 



Classification 

of 

the Signs 



a b c d e 

&c 



Methods of Treatment 

in their order ; 

Nature of Event ; 

Duration of Diease 



I. /. — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Cases and their circumstances are 
equally numerous, but where it may be of importance to mark the periods of the circumstances. 



* 




Cases. 






s 


Causes,predisposing 

and exciting : 

Symptoms in their 

order. 


CD 

O aj 
to .«} 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 

&c. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


<6 

CO 

co .J5 


Methods of Treat- 
ment, in their order;! 

Nature of Event ; ! . 
Duration of Disease., 


A 


B 


C 


E 


E 
Sic. 


A.a 


B.b 


C.c 


D.d 
Sec. 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 
Stc. 




































i 




































\ c 




































: 




































i 








































BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



FORM I. °\ — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Circumstances are numerous 

but the cases few. 



* 




Cases. 


Cases 
Continued. 




* 


History of 
Disease. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


~ 


« 


a 


6 
> 


- 


i — ! 


a 


6 
> 


Classification 
Continued. 


Method of Treat 

ment; 
Nature of Even 




A 


B 


CD 


E 


A 


B 


C 


D 


A 


B 


C 


D 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 
&c. 


Durationof Disease. 


o 

p 

a 








1 
































S3 

o 

3 

g- 
£>' 

n 








! 
























1 
























1 






























1 






































| 
































< 

CD 
3 








! 
































g 
o 

a 

S 








_J_ 

1 




















































o 

e 

E 

5' 






i 
































































































1 








1 






















1 


! 





I. A. — .For ^Ae Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Circumstances are numerous but the 
Cases few, but ivhere it is important to ascertain the periods of the Circumstances. 



History of 
the Disease. 



o 8 

M .22 



Classification. 

of 

the Signs. 



BCD? 



Cases. 



Cases 
Continued. 



Classification 
Continued. 



A B CD E 

&c. 



Method of Treat- 
ment ; 
Nature of Event ; 
Durationof Disease 



W 



10 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



FORM I. i.—For combining the method of Analysis with a Journal or Register, some of 
the Circumstances being written, but having their signs interlined if necessary. 



* 


. 


Cases. 


Circumstances. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 

&c. 


A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 


F. 


G. 


H. 


CO 
CO 

S3 

o 


Age. 










A. 


B. 


C. 




























Sex. 










































Temperament. 










































Previous Disease. 










































Profession, Trade. 










































Season of y ear, &c. 










































i 

o 

Oh 

s- 

>> 

a 
g 

c 

CD 
> 


















































































































































































































































— 































































































BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



11 



FORM I.j. — For determining the particular Effects of any Medicine upon the 
Body in health. 



* 




Experiments. 


State of body previous 

to taking the medicine ; 

Effects following the use 

of the medicine, &c. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


S- 


p 


B 


< 


< 


< 


< 


< 


R 


* 


a 


a 


X 


X 
< 


<j 


X 

< 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 

&c. 


A 


3 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


i 


j 


K 


L 


M 


N 





P 

&c. 
















































(* The name of the 

Medicine to be inserted 

in this open space.) 























































































I. k. — For determining the particular effects of any Medicine upon the Body in a state 
of Disease, and for ascertaining the time and duration of its operation. 



* 


t 


Cases. 


Particular state of body pre- 
vious to using the medicine ; 

Form and quantity used ; 

Effects following its use. 


Period or 

Duration of 

Effects. 


Classification 

of 

the Sigrns. 


- 


i— i 
B 


C 


— i 
D 


> 
E 


> 


— i 
> 


> 


d 


>< 




A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 

&c 


A 


F 


G 


H 


i 


j 


kI l 

k &c 


(* The name of the medicine 

to be inserted here. 

f Space in which is to be 

written the name of the 

disease in which it is used.) 












































































































































I 











I. /. — For comparing, with one another, two methods of treatment in different cases 
of the same Disease. 



* 


t 


Cases of 
First Series. 


Cases of 
Second Series. 


t 


* 


Circumstances. 


Classification 
of Signs of 
First Series. 






















Classification 

of Signs of 

Second Series. 


Circumstances. 


A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 

&c. 


A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 

&c. 


A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 

&c. 


A. 


B. 


C. 


D 

&c. 


(* Space for 
inserting name 

of Disease. 
t for inserting 
the method of 

treatment.) 




































































































































































































12 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 






?ORM I. m. — For comparing 
the same Disease, where 


, with one another, two methods of treatment in different cases of 
it is of importance to note the periods of the Circumstances. , 


* 


t 


Cases. 


f 


* 


Circumstances 

of the Cases of 

First Series. 


6 

as 

ha 

P <D 


Classification 
of Signs of 
First Series. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 

&c. 


Classification 

of Signs of 

Second Series. 


6 

£>P 
P © 


Circumstances 
of the Cases of 
Second Series. 

i k 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

tc. 


A.a 


B.b 


C.c 


D.d 
See. 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 
fee. 












































































































- 


































- 










1 






















- 


I. n. — For comparing with one another collectively, two series of cases of different kinds of 3 
Diseases, between which it is desired to ascertain the points of resemblance and the points - 
of distinction. 


* 




Cases of 
1st Series. 


Cases of 
2d Series. 






Circumstances 
of the Cases. 


Classification 
of Signs of 
1st Series. 




B 


£h 


> 


>' 




< 


< 


Classification 

of Signs of 

2d Series. 


Circumstances 
of the Cases. 


A 


B 


C 


D 

&c 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


A 


B 


n{D 


































-|— j- 

i — i 


! 


















































1 














































1 1 






































7, , 

















I. o. For comparing, with one another individually, the cases of two different kinds of Diseases, 

where it is also of importance to note the date of the Circumstances. 



* 




Cases of both Series 




n 




Circumstances. 


CD 

•si 

£P 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


Classificatic 

of 

the Signs 


a; 

■s 1 

w .JS 

^P 
Q a> 


Circumstances. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c. 


A.a. 


B.b. 


C.c. 


D.d 


E.e. 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 

xv. 


_ 




— 


— 


- 


— 


- 





























































































- 




























I 





















BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 

1 

I. p. — For determining the Relations between the Symptoms of 
Appearances found on Dissection. 


D 


13 

isease and the Morbid 






Dissections. 






Symptoms 

bserved before 

death. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


Morbid Appear- 
ances found after 
death. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


A.a. 


B.b. 


C.c. 


D.d. 


E.e. 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


- 








































































































































V 


































ll 


































j 



































14 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



FORM II. a. — For investigating the Relations existing between the Circum- 
stances of Disease classed together by the first process of Analysis. 



Class. * 


c 

W 


Circumstances of the Class. 


Cases. 


I. 

t 


II. 

t 


III. 

t 


IV. 

t 


V. 

t 


VI. 

t 


VII. 

t 


VIII 

t 




a. 




















b. 


















(* The Sign of 
the Class to be in- 
serted here. 

The circum- 
stances to be writ- 
tenin these spaces.) 


c. 


















d. 


















e. 


















/■ 


















g- 



















h. 


















i.tyc. 




















Class. 


* 


















CO 

i <D 


a. 


















b. 


















c. 


















d. 



















II. b. — For investigating the Relations between the Circumstances of the 
same Class, and for ascertaining their Combinations with the Circumstances 
of other Classes. 



Class. * 


CO 

& 

00 


Circumstances. 


Cases. 


belonging to the class. 


occurring in combination. 


I. 

t 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


I. 

t 


II. 


III. 


IV. 




a. 




















b. 




















c. 




















d. 




















e.fyc. 




















Class. 


* 


















1 CU 


a. 


















b. 




















c. | 

















BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



15 



FQRM III. a. — For connecting together, by the process of Rectification, the Analysis 
of different series of Cases. 



* 


Rectificatior 
of 




Classifications of different Series of Cases. 


the Signs. 


1st Series. 


2d Series. 


3d Series. 


Circumstances. 


A 


B 


C 


D 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


'E 

&c. 











































































































































































































III. b. — For placing in correspondence the Analyses of different Series of Observations 
by the process of Rectification. 



* 


CO 

C 
he 

55 


Circumstances. 


I. 


H. 


in. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


LX. 


X. 


XL 


Classifications 

of different 

Series of Observations. 


1st 
Series. 


A. 
























B. 
























C. 
























D&c. 
























2nd 
Series. 


A. 
B. 














































C. 
D&c. 







































3rd 

Series. 


A. 
B. 












































C. 
























D&c. 
























Rectification 

of 

the Signs. 


A. 
























B. 
























C. 
























D. 
























E&c. 

















































16 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



FORM II. c. — For determining the Relations between particular Symptoms and 
particidar morbid Appearances found on Dissection. 









Symptoms. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 

&c. 


Dissections. 


Morbid Appearances. 




A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 


F. 


G.&c. 






a. 




















b. 


















c. 




















d$c. 


















Coincidences of 

the two Series of 

Signs. 




A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 


F. 


G.&c. 




a. 


















b. 


















cfyc. 












1 



II. d. — For determining the Coincidence of certain morbid Appearances 
with certain Stethoscopic Signs. 









Stethoscopic Signs. 


I. 

A. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 

&c. 


Dissections. 


Morbid Appearances. 




B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 


F. 


G.&c 






a. 




















b. 




















c. 




















d. 




















e. 




















f4e 



















Coincidence of 

the two Series of 

Signs. 


a. 
















b. 


















c. 

































BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



17 



FORM IV. a. — For Arranging and Distributing the 
Results of any Analysis of Diseases, according to 
the Classes and Sub-Classes to which they belong. 



Classes. 


Sub-Classes. 


A. 




a. 


b. 


c. 


d. &c. 


















































B. 




a. 


b. 


c. 


d. &c. 


















































C. 




a. 


b. 


c. 


d. &c. 


















































D. 

&c. 




a. 


b. 


c. 


d. &c. 



















































18 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



IV. b. — For Registering and Distributing the Cir- 
cumstances of any Disease according to their affi- 
nity to each other, as determined by Analysis, 



Classes. 


Sub-Classes. 


A. 
B. 




t "3 


a. 




b. 


. s 

ID 


c. d. &c. 
























1 

J 






a. 




b. 




c. d. &c. 


























— 


C. 
D. 






a. 




b. 




c. d. &c. 






























a. 




b. 




c. d. &c. 





























IV. c. — For Registering and Arranging the Circum- 
stances of any Disease according to their Classes, 
as found by Analysis. 



Circumstances arranged in Classes according to 
their Signs. 


A. 


i "3 

o <u 


B. 


"3 


C. 


a 

i •- 


D.E.&c 


D. 


E. 


F. 








— 


— 






























— 


— 




















































— 


— 


— 

















BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 19 

Particular Histories of Singular or Remarkable 
Diseases. 



20 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



Particular Descriptions of any Remarkable Causes or 
Symptoms of Disease, of the Morbid Appearances 
on dissection, of the Effects of Medlines, fyc. fyc. 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 



21 



Analytical Index of the Circumstances of Diseases, Alphabetically 
Arranged. 



Circumstances of 



Diseases, 



Observed in 
Cases 



of 
Series. 



Page. 



22 



BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
Alphabetical Index of Diseases. 



Di 



isease, 



Species, 



Variety, 



or 
Modification 



Page. 



SECTION II 



Physiology. 



That science which has for its object to explain 
the phenomena of organized bodies,, taking Physi- 
ology in its most extensive sense, falls very naturally 
under consideration after Medecine ; and may be 
named with it, as requiring equally the aid of a 
better Induction : not however that they are to be 
so much compared with each other as regards the 
intricacy and complexity of their facts, as in their 
suffering in common from the neglect of a proper 
method of investigation. The phenomena of physi- 
ology consists of much fewer elementary circum- 
stances which present themselves in an order con- 
veniently arranged for comparison, and admit more 
frequently of being varied and modified by experi- 
ment. Indeed of late years physiology has in some 
of its branches been almost elevated to the rank of 
an experimental science, and it cannot be denied 
that within the same period its progess has been 
proportionately accelerated. But it must not be 



156 PHYSIOLOGY. 

forgotten, that experiments upon organized bodies 
do not carry with them the conclusive evidence 
which results from experiments upon unorganized 
matter, and are sometimes so entangled with the ac- 
companying circumstances that they are even not 
so decisive as the facts of simple observation. And 
if we consider for a moment the conflicting opinions 
which have been deduced from the same experi- 
ments, and the numbers of experiments which 
justify no opinion at all, we may be disposed to 
admit that a method of analysing experiments 
is as essential to elicit truth as the power of making 
them. If we also contemplate the multitude of 
facts, observations as well as experiments, which 
remain isolated and unconnected, and therefore 
sterile, it is impossible not to be convinced that 
the only way to solve the mysteries of nature, which 
are of the province of physiology, is by a severe 
and searching induction ; and, therefore, though in 
the time of Willis it might have been perrmitted to 
him to say, after the fable, "ex aperto cerebro, 
obstetricantibus etiam Vidcani ferramentis Minervam 
enatam fuisse ; nam aut hac via scilicet per vulnera 
et mortes, per anatomiam et quasi ccesareo partu, in 
lucem prodibit Veritas, aut semper latebit" in the 
state of the science in our days, it would be more 
correct to conclude, in the opinion of the philoso- 
pher, " itaque facienda est corporum separatio et 
solutio non per ignem certe, sed per rationem et 
inductionem veram, cum experiments auxiliaribus ; 



PHYSIOLOGY. 157 

et per comparationen ad alia corpora, et reductionem 
adnaturassimplices et earumformas, quce in composite 
conveniunt et complicantur : et transeundum plane a 
Vulcano ad Miner mm, si in animo sit veras corporum 
texturas et schematismos in lucem protrahere." 

What but the want of a proper method of 
induction has prevented the vast resources which 
the physiology of the lower animals afford, from 
having been made available ? The mutual illus- 
trations which the different structure of their organs 
might throw upon their functions, have been almost 
entirely neglected, and although, in this way, a 
simple comparison of observations might frequently 
impart evidence more conclusive than a direct 
experiment, this rich mine of physiological treasure 
has scarcely been turned to any account. As an 
example of investigating the phenomena of life in 
this way, I would instance the work of Wepfer on the 
comparative anatomy of the great sympathetic 
nerve, and, of the principle, it would be impossible 
to find a happier explanation than the following 
passage from Cuvier. "II consiste a observer sue- 
cessivement le meme corps dans les differentes 
positions ou la nature le place, ou a comparer 
entre eux les differens corps jusqu' a ce que Ton 
ait reconnu des rapports constans entre leurs struc- 
tures, et les phenomenes qu'ils manifestent. Ces 
corps divers sont des especes d' experiences toutes 
preparees par la nature, qui ajoute ou re tranche a 
chacun d'eux differentes parties, comme nous 



158 PHYSIOLOGY. 

pourrions desirer de le faire dans nos laboratoiresj 
et nous montre elle-meme les resultats de ces 
additions ou de ces retranchemens." And whilst 
this method of substituting observations for ex- 
periments,, by means of induction, must prove more 
agreeable to the kinder feelings of our nature, 
enabling Us to spare many painful sufferings, 
otherwise of necessity inflicted upon the lower 
animals, it is encouraging to recollect that the 
great discovery of the circulation of the blood was 
principally the fruit of a process of legitimate 
induction ; and that the natural system of the 
nerves, the most brilliant accession to physiological 
science made in our days, was chiefly achieved by 
the same instrument. 

The remarks which I have found it necessary to 
make on the proper method of studying the phy- 
siology of the body, apply with equal propriety to 
the investigation of the phenomena of mind. For 
although it must be admitted that the present state 
of the physiology, improperly called the philosophy, 
of mind, is by no means encouraging, it must also 
be allowed that it has never been satisfactorily 
studied as a science of experience ; and that if the 
processes under which philosophers have arranged 
the intellectual phenomena, afford very inadequate 
explanations of the mental operations, it must not 
be forgotten that they have been rather the result 
of hypothetical anticipations than of legitimate in- 
ductions. The luminous facts which nature scatters 



PHYSIOLOGY. 159 

so abundantly at our feet,, either as instances of 
the unequal developement of the mental faculties, 
of the absolute deficiency of some, or of the 
accidental derangement of them all, instead of 
being gathered and winnowed for our information 
and our profit, have been trodden down and 
neglected ; and the light which they might have 
thrown on the process of the mind, has been 
smothered or extinguished by the very mass and 
multitude of the observations. Nor is it merely 
for the pleasure and satisfaction which the full 
knowledge of the ways of nature never fails to 
impart, that this waste of experience is to be so 
much regretted. They whose lives are spent in 
using the processes of Nature as the operations 
of Art, are too deeply impressed with the belief, 
that, if all art does not, in the language of Hip- 
pocrates, literally exist in nature, most certainly 
the knowledge of nature is the only power of 
art, not to give a ready admission to the pleasing 
prospect, — that, if the intellectual sciences we 
possess are only copies or reflected transcripts 
of the natural process of the intellect, in the 
undiscovered operations of the mind, there may 
remain wrapt up, but yet to be revealed, sciences 
as unconceived and as unthought of by us as 
were the wonderful powers of the modern calculus 
by the great philosophers of antiqiuity. 



SECTION III. 

PHRENOLOGY, ANIMAL MAGNETISM, AND OMOIOPATHIC 
MEDICINE. 



These subjects have been brought forward 
with claims to be received amongst the sciences. 
Whether they be entitled to that rank I dare not 
pretend to say. As they profess to be derived 
from experience and appeal to it, they have a right 
to be heard attentively and to have their cause 
judged by a fair induction of facts. But as the 
facts they bring forward are capable of various 
constructions, without the necessity of admitting the 
existence of new laws of mind or new agencies of 
matter, it is obviously incumbent upon those who 
advocate these branches of knowledge, to subject 
their facts, without choice or bias, to the test of a 
searching analysis. It is not by a few selected and 
solitary instances that such complicated questions 
are to be set at rest; on this principle, judicial 
astrology, fortune-telling and necromancy might 
have equal claims to be entertained. 

The tabular analysis appears to me very well 
adapted to the examination of these questions and 



PHRENOLOGY AND ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 161 

I have therefore endeavoured to point out, in tables, 
some of its applications to Phrenology. But in 
order that the trial made by these tables may be 
perfectly fair, it would be proper that the number 
of individuals upon whom the observations were 
made should be very considerable, and should be 
taken indiscriminately; and that the moral and 
intellectual qualities of each individual should be 
determined by one party, and the developement 
of the organs should be described by the other, 
without any communication having place between 
them. 



162 



PHRENOLOGY AND ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 



FORM I. a.— For ascertaining empirically the relations existing between the external 
form of the Head, and the Moral and Intellectual Faculties. 



External Configuration 


Classification 


Individual Observations. 


of the Skull according to 
the Phrenologists ; 

Moral and Intellectual 
Qualitiesby Observation. 


of 
the Signs. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


vn. 


VIII. 
H. 


IX. 
I. 


X. 

&c. 

K. 

&c. 


A. 


B.|C 


D 


E 

&c. 


A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 


F. 


G. 


VI 

C 
ctJ 

be 

>- 

o 






1 






























1 


| 


























1 


1 


























1 


1 
























1 


1 














m 

o| 




1 
























I 

i 




1 




















| 
























1 




I 






























| 






























| 




























1 






























1 





























[. b. — For determining the coincidence of certain Configurations of the Head with 
the Moral and Intellectual Faculties as assigned by Phrenologists. 



External Configura- 
tion of the Skull 
according to the 
Phrenologists. 


Classification 

of the Signs 

of the 

Protuberances. 


Individual Observations. 


Classificati 
of the Signs 


on 
of 
mil 
il 




I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 

&c. 


the Moral 
Intellects 
Faculties 


Moral and Intellec 

tual Faculties, as 

observed in 

Indivduals. 


A. 


B. 


C, 


D. 


E. 
&c. 


A.a 


B.b. 


C.c. 


D.d. 


E.e. 

&c. 


a. 


b. 


c. 


d. 


e. 
&c. 

























— 


— 


— 


— 


























































































































































































1 
































I 1 

























PHRENOLOGY AND ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 



163 



II. a. — For determining the coincidence of the external Configuration of 
the Skull, according to Phrenologists, with the Moral and Intellectual 
Qualities. 



Names of 
Individuals on 
whom the Obser- 
vations were 
made. 


Moral and 

Intellectual 

Qualities. 


Protuberances of the Organs. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


IX. 

&c. 


No. 


Signs 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


I 
&c. 




I. 


a. 






















II. 


b. 






















III. 


c. 






















IV. 


d. 






















V. 


e. 























VI. 


f. 
















VII. 


S- 






















VIII. 


h. 






















IX. 


i. 






















X. 


3- 






















XL 


k. 






















XII. 


1. 






















XIII. 


m. 






















XIV. 


n. 






















XV. 


0. 






















XVI. 


P- 


















XVII. 


?• 






















XVHI. 


r. 






















XIX. 


s. 






















XX. 


t. 






















XXI. 


u. 






















XXII. 


V. 






















XXIII. 

&c. 


w. 




















Coincidence of 

the two Series 

of Signs. 






























































■ 



































































SECTION IV. 



THE USEFUL ARTS, CHEMISTRY, AND METEOROLOGY. 



When the useful arts are practised by observing 
and independent minds, their history presents a 
constant and continued series of inductions which 
the tangible and visible nature of their operations 
forces upon the understanding, and hence they are 
ever steadily, though gradually, advancing forward. 
It is for the same reason, that men, whose minds 
are open to observe and free to think, habitually 
occupied in the practice of an art, and uncon- 
sciously exercised in the inductive process, are 
distinguished by that intuitive common sense (ab- 
normis sapiens, — crassd Minerva) which is acknow- 
ledged to belong to practical men. But on the 
contrary, where the rule of procedure in an art is 
immoveably fixed, and where the artist may not 
change or adapt the rule to the circumstances, he 
himself becomes degraded to a machine of slavish 
imitation, and his art may retrograde but cannot 
improve. It is, therefore, the proper exercise of 
induction which makes the able and the skilful 



USEFUL ARTS. 165 

artisan, and which ensures the improvement of 
the arts. The history of the progress of the useful 
arts in different countries might afford some interes- 
ting illustrations of this opinion. Thus the Chinese 
seem for centuries to have been following in the 
practice of their arts a process of pure imitation, 
presenting as it were the experiment of a whole 
people pursuing the method of the experientia 
liter ata instead of the experientia vera. It is, there- 
fore, not difficult to understand why, with all the 
patient manipulating practice of their arts, they 
have never chanced to stumble upon, a science. 
The Greek artist, in ancient, and the English me- 
chanic of modern times, may on the contrary be 
fairly said to have taken the lead of all others in 
the practice of intuitive induction, and it is unne- 
cessary to add that the results have been in corres- 
pondence. This consequence of the liberty of 
thought, in the daily practice of the useful arts, has 
perhaps not been fully appreciated, and this view of 
the tangible nature of the intuitive induction of the 
arts, may afford a way of explaining the difference 
between the progress of the arts and of philosophy, 
not precisely the same as that suggested by Bacon. — 
Artes enim mechanicas ut aurce cujusdam vitalis par- 
ticipes quotidie crescere et perfici ; philosophiam vero 
statuce more adorari et celebrari nee moveri. Atque 
Mas in primis auctoribus rudes et fere informes ac 
onerosas se ostendere ; posted novas vires et com- 
moditates adipisci: hanc autem in primo quoque 



166 CHEMISTRY. 

auctore maxime vigere, ac deinceps declinare. Neque 
aliam hujus contrarii successus causam veriorem esse, 
quam quod in mechanicis multorum ingenia in unum 
coeunt, in philosophia autem singulorum ingenia ab 
uno quopiam destruuntur. 

The experimental nature of Chemistry, as I 
have already had occasion to remark, renders it 
comparatively independent of the mental analysis. 
In the decomposition of substances, the principle 
of exclusion is applied in the same manner prac- 
tically, as it is performed by the understanding 
upon the objects of thought, and the privilege of 
experiment allowing of, as it were, the creation of 
prerogative facts, or such as have a decided bearing 
upon the subject of investigation, the conclusion is 
suggested, not sought for. There are, however, 
some departments of this science where expe- 
riments are not such luminous facts, or where they 
possess their distinctive character in so low a 
degree, that they afford evidence scarcely more 
conclusive than that of simple observations, so that 
the truth can only be ascertained by accumulating 
the evidence of numerous instances. I allude to 
the analysis of organic bodies, to animal and vege- 
table chemistry, in which it is only by the in- 
tellectual analysis of numerous experiments that 
we can expect to arrive at satisfactory and lasting 
results. 

After Medicine and Civil Polity, the phenomena 
which are the object of Meteorology, are probably 



■' 



METEOROLOGY. 167 

those which are the result of the combination of 
the greatest number of elements ; and, unlike either 
of the subjects which have just passed under con- 
sideration, their combinations are matter of pure 
observation, which no artificial cause can change 
or modify. It is, therefore, unnecessary to say, 
that the laws which govern these phenomena can 
only be ascertained by faithful histories of their 
combinations, and by careful and cautious con- 
clusions, deduced from them. Now, though we do 
certainly possess very accurate records of atmos- 
pheric phenomena, (and amongst the patient 
and persevering labourers in this field of science, no 
one is more deserving of mention than the modest 
Howard*,) yet to place all the elements of these 
phenomena, — all the circumstances which compose 
the observations, in their natural relation to each 
other, is beyond the reach of the ordinary method 
of induction. Nor does it seem probable, that this 
manner of investigating the laws which controul 
atmospheric phenomena, can ever be superseded or 
supplied by the indirect method of hypothesis, — by 
applying to explain them, the relations of heat, 
light, moisture, evaporation, &c, as ascertained in 
the laboratory; so that, unless some method of ex- 
perience can be made equal to cope with the com- 
plexity of the subject, there is small chance of 
success. But the only form of induction which has 
heretofore been made use of in drawing conclusions 

* (Climate of London.) 
R 



168 METEOROLOGY. 

from meteorological facts, (from which it has some- 
times been possible to guess at a few indistinct, 
ghmmering relations, connecting together some of 
the different elements of the phenomena,) has been 
mere enumeration, — a blindfold induction. It is, 
therefore, in subjects of this description, that the 
tabular analysis, which not only enumerates but 
excludes, if aided and sustained by assiduous obser- 
vation, promises more favourable results ; whether 
directed to discover the laws which govern mete- 
orological phenomena, or to determine, from the 
present phenomena of the atmosphere, those which 
are to follow. 

But, to apply these remarks to their object, we 
may easily gather from a comparison of the fore- 
going subjects, in nature differing so much from 
one another, that whether we are labouring in the 
daily toils of the Arts, or keenly seeking to pene- 
trate the mysteries of Nature, by the most in- 
geniously devised experiments, or, patiently and 
passively, watching and waiting for the slow 
succession of natural phenomena, our success 
chiefly depends on the skilful use we make of our 
inductive powers, either unconsciously or inten- 
tionally exercised. 



SECTION V. 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



The method of tabular analysis promises to be 
of much assistance in the study of Natural History, 
in abbreviating and facilitating the process of syste- 
matic arrangements; for classification and method 
forming the essential part, — indeed constituting the 
whole, of this process of Induction, it readily lends 
its aid to such pursuits. The objects (instances) 
being submitted to the operation of the analytical 
tables, are decomposed mentally, and reduced to 
their simplest forms and properties (circumstances), 
which are afterwards assorted and distributed ac- 
cording as they may be common to all the objects, 
as they may belong only to a few, or be confined to 
some particular one. This at once shows what are 
the properties which constitute the generic charac- 
ter, what go to the specific distinctions, and what 
remain for the individual peculiarities. But the 
classifications of natural history, — rather classifica- 
tions of instances than of circumstances, are, properly 
speaking, only incomplete inductions in which the 



170 CLASSIFICATIONS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

first stage of that process, classification by affirmative 
circumstances, has only been performed. There is 
reason, therefore, to hope that were this operation 
carried a step farther, — were the classifications of 
natural history subjected to the process of exclusion 
or classification by negative circumstances, — our know- 
ledge of nature would be greatly advanced, and the 
distinction of Natural History into systematical and 
philosophical, or physiological, would no longer exist. 
A classification of instances, or objects, can only 
be founded on a correct classification of their circum- 
stances or properties. From the process of classi- 
fication by affirmative circumstances proceeds, there- 
fore, the classification of instances as well as the 
process of exclusion, classification by negative circum- 
stances; the stream of knowledge dividing itself, at 
this point, into two branches; the one pursuing, 
the investigations of causes, ascertaining the cir- 
cumstances which cannot be separated; the other 
collecting the long series of existences, determining 
what circumstances may be conjoined. The following 
imperfect sketch will explain the application of this 
method to the classification of instances. 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
FORM. V. Classification of Instances. 



171 



<8 

o 

C 

1 

A. 


Classifications of Circum- 
stances. 


Classification of Instances. 


A 
A" 


B 


C 


D 


F 


H 


K 


M 


T 


Genus. 


1. 

Species. 


a. 

Variety. 


b. 

Variety. 


2. 

Species. 


a. 

Variety. 


b. 

Variety. 


3. 

Species. 


a. 
Variety. 








A. 




















B. 


A 


B 
















A. 


B 


















C. 
D. 
E. 
F. 
G. 


A 

a" 

A 
A 


¥ 


C 

c 


d" 






K 


M 




A. 








c 














A. 


B 


D 


















A. 














K 


M 






F 




K 






A. 








c 


F 










A. 














K 






H. 
I. 


A 
A 


B 








H 








A. 


B 




H 














B 








H 








A. 


B 




H 














J. 
K. 
L. 


A 




c 




F 










A. 








c 


F 










A 

A 
A 
A 

A 


B 

b" 


"c 


D 


J 


H 


K 






A. 














K 






A. 


B 


D 
















M. 
N. 
0. 




A. 


B 




H 




















A. 








c 


F 




















K 






A. 










1 


K 






P. 


A 
A 


— 


c 








K 


M 




A. 














K 


M 




Q. 




F 










A. 








c 


F 










R. 

S. 


A 


B 








H 








A. 


B 




H 














A 


















A. 




















T. 


A 




c 






T 


A. 








c 




T 








U. 


A 


















A. 




















&c. 


A 
































































































































































































































SECTION VI. 



ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY, 



Facts testified differ from facts of personal expe- 
rience in having passed through media,— mind and 
language, by which, like objects seen through 
optical instruments, they are liable to be misrepre- 
sented. The correctness of such an instrument, — the 
credibility of a witness — can only be ascertained by 
observing whether the object is represented consist- 
ently with general experience, whether similar instru- 
ments, — witnesses of the same facts, — coincide in the 
appearance which they give to the object ; or, if, as in 
viva voce evidence, the opportunity be allowed of 
taking the instrument to pieces, of examining its 
different parts, and of changing and inverting its 
position, — by determining whether the object con- 
tinues to be presented in a manner consistent with 
the different aspects under which it is viewed. This 
last is the method of cross-examination, where the 
examiner, like the experimenter in physicks, has 
the advantage of creating prerogative facts, and is 
consequently the most searching test of testimony. 



ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY. 173 

The agreement of testimony with general expe- 
rience, — that which every day testifieth or common 
consent acknowledged is of great weight where the 
testimony concerns natural facts, but is also a test 
of testimony which is liable to great abuse. For 
men being disposed to limit experience to their own 
knowledge, or to mistake one for the other as if 
convertible terms, are either ready to believe a false- 
hood because they understand it, or to reject what 
is true, because they cannot comprehend it. There 
are many instances of truths, from this cause, having 
been left for centuries out of the pale of science, 
and of falsehoods having been, for the same reason, 
installed in undisputed possession. The history of 
meteoric stones affords a good example where the 
truth of testimony was for centuries rejected, because 
the facts could not be explained by science, but 
where the force of testimony at last prevailed in 
estabhshing facts which a more perfect science after- 
wards explained and confirmed. It would indeed be 
difficult to say how much the world has lost in ex- 
perience by the pride of knowledge. One of the 
most recent instances which occurs to me, is the 
use of cupping glasses in the treatment of poisoned 
wounds ; a practice followed by the ancients, which 
fell into disuse because it was not understood, and 
which has, only lately, been revived, because expe- 
riments have explained that the absorption of poison 
is by that expedient prevented. 

Where there is neither the opportunity of cross- 



174 ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY. 

examination nor the test of experience, there 
remains no way of judging of the credibility of 
witnesses of the same facts but by comparing their 
evidence with one another.* But when the question 
is much complicated and the witnesses numerous, it 
is no easy matter to confront them accurately, 
to collect from the different testimonies, the bear- 
ings of all upon the points at issue, so that each 
may carry its proper weight and no more. It 
is, therefore, this part of the analysis of testimony 
which, it appears to me, might derive much 
assistance from the method of classification. For, 
by arranging and methodising the testimonies 
of different witnesses according to the plan of an 
analytical table, the classified signs would not only 
concentrate the strength of the whole testimony, 
but would point out where the evidence of any one 
was defective or contradictory. The facility which 
this plan affords of classifying and comparing toge- 
ther the individual circumstances of facts, testified 
by different witnesses, has many advantages over 
the same operation performed memoriter, and shows 
the coincidencies and discrepancies more clearly and 
distinctly than the ordinary method of writing 

* In a question which at this moment divides the scientific 
world, the spontaneous motion of the atomic particles of matter, 
our simile has become matter of fact ; for the point in dispute 
hinging entirely upon the correctness of the microscopes, — the 
credibility of the witnesses, — can only be decided by a comparison 
of them. 



ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY. 175 

down in notes the heads of the evidence. For, by 
the operation of the analytical table, the evidence 
of numerous testimonies, however intricate or dif- 
ficult to unravel, might be arranged, set in order, 
and at last classified, so as to represent their true 
relations to each other and to the points to be 
determined; and it seems possible to make even 
the credibility of a witness enter as a circumstance 
into each individual testimony, so that it may 
receive its due estimation and no more. 

The same facility which this method affords for 
the analysis of facts certified by many individiuals, 
it also presents for orderly digesting the various 
opinions held by different individuals upon the 
same question. Thus in the debates of public 
assemblies where men assign the reasons of their 
votes and opinions, it is most difficult to understand 
all their relative bearings, and it is not uncommon 
to find persons contending, with the same argu- 
ments on opposite sides of the same question. It 
would surely be therefore of great assistance to 
have the debates of such public bodies correctly 
analysed, to see the reasons of either side distinctly 
arrayed against each other, and to understand the 
bearing of every individual reason, and the reasons 
of every individual member upon the question at 
issue. 



176 



ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY. 



FORM I. a. — For ascertaining in what Circumstances a number of Testimonies 

agree together. 







Testimonies. 


Circumstances 
testified. 


Classification of 
the Signs. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII 


IX. 


X. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


S 


F 


G 


H 


A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 


F. 


G. 


H. 


T. 


J.&c. 


































































































• 
























































































1 



















I. b. — For comparir 


g 


with one 


another, collectively, two series of 
sides of the same question. 


Testimonies on opposite 




First Series. 


Testimonies. 


Testimonies. 


Second Series. 


* 


Circumstances 
testified. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 




i~* 


h-, 


< 


< 


I_H 


l " H 


a 


> 


>' 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


Circumstances 

testified. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c. 


A 


B 


c 


D 


E 

&c. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 

&c. 










































































































































































































1 

















I. c. — For comparing \ 


vit 


h one another, individually, two series 
sides of the same question. 


of Testimonies on opposite 




First Series. 


Testimonies. 


Second Series. 




Circumstances 
testified. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


Classification 

of 

the Signs. 


Circumstances, 
testified. 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 
&c. 


A.a. 


B.b. 


C.c. 


D.d. 


E.e. 


F.f. 

&c. 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 
&e. 














































































































































































































1 











ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY. 



177 



-For ascertaining the bearing of a series of testimonies on certain 
Circumstances. 





CO 

re" 

3 

GO 


Circumstances. 


Testimonies. 


I. 


11. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII 

&c. 




A. 




















B. 




















C. 




















D. 




















E. 




















F. 





















G.&c. 
















Classification 
of 

the Signs. 


A. 


















B. 


















C. 


















D.&c. 



















II. b. 



-For ascertaining the coincidence of two series of Testimonies concerning certain 
Circumstances. 





CO 
Oq" 

3 

CO 


Circumstances. 


CO 

3 




Testimonies 

of 
First Series. 


I. 


11. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 

&c. 


Testimonies 

of 

Second Series. 




A. 
















a. 






B. 
















b. 






C. 
















c. 






D. 
















d. 






E.&c. 
















e.fyc. 




Coincidence 
of 




















Coincidence 
of 

the Signs. 




















the Signs. 


















-A 










I 









SECTION VII. 



STATISTICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 



Quotus enim quisque novit, segroto mortuoaut restituto, item republic a 
stante vel labante, utrum sit res casus an consilii ? 



If the true object of Statistics were attained, they 
would constitute the most luminous commentary 
upon the wisdom of particular governments; for, 
affording the truest means of tracing effects to their 
causes in the body politic, they would form the 
safest criterion for estimating the relative merits of 
different institutions. If the materials of Statistics 
were faithfully and accurately prepared and clearly 
analysed, they would present the experimental 
result of legislation in all its various departments; 
for, allowing effects to be placed in relation with 
their causes, they would enable us to distinguish 
that which is constant from that which is accidental, 



STATISTICS A1SD POLITICAL ECONOMY. 179 

— the consequence of positive enactment from that 
of collateral and intercurrent causes. In short, 
Statistics properly studied would be constantly 
preparing the means for making legislation a science, 
and would thus remove that censure which, since 
the days of Count Oxenstiern, has been so freely 
reported of those who administer public affairs. 

In the complicated machinery of the body 
politic, a law is frequently a very subordinate 
element in producing the series of circumstances 
which succeed it, but being probably the only 
element which is the result of design, it is 
generally regarded as the sole cause. Were the 
statistics of the case, or the circumstances which 
accompanied the operation of the law, correctly 
ascertained and fairly analysed so that all stood 
in their natural relation to each other, it might 
then be just to say what were the real conse- 
quences of any- law, and what were foreign to it ; 
and the biassed opinions of interest or party 
would cease to mislead us under the name of 
Experience. The present state of statistics is far 
from corresponding to these views. The infor- 
mation which they yield is vague and unsatisfactory, 
a few general incongruous conclusions, the effects 
of many causes without a particular reference to 
any one. Even these are confined for the most part 
to subjects which admit the measure of number and 
quantity, and only speak in the dry language of 



180 STATISTICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

figures : or, on the other hand, some of those ques- 
tions which most interest the feelings of society, for 
want, it must be allowed, of better means, are 
treated like matters of finance. The crimes of 
a community are estimated in percentages, — their 
murders in ratios, — their suicides and executions 
in decimals and fractions, to which are appended 
some clumsy speculations and much difference of 
opinion concerning their causes and their effects, 
but without any fair and rational appeal being 
made to experience, with any reasonable prospect 
of ascertaining the truth. We learn nothing, — at 
least nothing which is entitled to the least con- 
fidence, concerning the influence of circumstances, 
of parentage, early habits, education, religion, 
natural propensities, bodily health, trade and oc- 
cupation, and many other possible causes the know- 
ledge of which might lead to the remedy. Yet 
all and every one of these are objects of common 
observation and of legitimate inquiry which remain 
unanswered only for want of a proper method 
of asking the questions. And until some method 
is found of obtaining satisfactory answers to such 
questions, all hopes of enlightened government 
must be despaired of, and legislation must remain, 
as it is, the most empirical, though the most 
important, of all the sciences. 

The meritorious efforts of public spirited indi- 
viduals, in collecting information on many subjects 
intimately connected with the welfare of the 



STATISTICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 181 

country, are fully entitled to respect, and nothing 
can be more to be regretted than that they should 
have been attended by such unsatisfactory results ; 
or that their labours were not directed by a better 
method. For though the shelves of the public 
offices have been loaded with the lumber of returns, 
(of which, a single sheet of information, analytically 
collected and digested, would have contained the 
essence of a cart load) ; so faulty and deficient has 
been the method of collecting it, that it leads the in- 
quiry to no conclusion, and, in spite of the best inten- 
tions and most praiseworthy perseverance, the fruits 
of experience never ripen to a state of usefulness. 
But I cannot help indulging the hope, which I 
must confess to me is matter of some satisfaction, 
that were the method of induction by classification 
applied to statistical researches, many of these 
deficiencies might be supplied and much valuable 
experience, which is at present cast away, might 
be rendered fruitful and profitable. By means 
of analytical tables consructed upon this principle, 
and properly adapted to each subject, information 
might be gathered together in such a form, that, 
the relative influence of every circumstance bearing 
upon the subject of inquiry, would at once present 
itself; effects would be found in correspondence 
with their causes; and the conclusion, instead of 
being swayed to the right or to the left, by the 
bias of preconceived opinions, would be drawn 



182 STATISTICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

by a simple mechanical operation. It would 
require no great labour to prepare analytical forms 
to serve the purpose of registers, records, lists, 
journals or diaries, in such a way that the infor- 
mation which is perpetually produced by the 
ordinary and e very-day working of the machinery 
of public institutions, might be preserved, collected, 
and analysed, and be made to be unceasingly 
contributing to a common stock of available expe- 
rience. Were the organization of our public insti- 
tutions formed on an inductive principle, or were a 
system of analytical machinery attached to our 
public offices, to our courts of law, prisons, houses 
of correction, work-houses, penitentinaries, hos- 
pitals, lunatic asylums, and all public establish- 
ments, to record, methodically, every operation, 
a vast fund of knowledge would be placed at our 
disposal, all in some way or other conducive to 
the public good. And if the analytical machinery 
of all such institutions were placed in correspondence 
with one central board of Statistics, constituted 
of men of science, by whom should be performed 
the last refining process of the materials, the best 
check would be provided for the careful discharge 
of administrative duties, the most common and 
ordinary operations of public institutions would be 
fraught with knowledge as well as use, (experimenta 
et fructifera et lucifera,) and the whole would 
be laying a broad and lasting foundation for the 
superstructure of political science. 



STATISTICS OR POLITICAL ECONOMY, 183 

The fear only of encumbering this little work 
with too many forms of tables, has led me to omit 
their particular application to Statistics and Politi- 
cal Economy, but whoever will take the pains 
to understand this principle of classification, will 
find little difficulty in adapting it to any subject. 



T 



CONCLUSION. 



It would be an easy matter to increase the 
number of the applications of the tabular analysis,, 
for only a few examples have been given of the 
many snbjects which demand the aid of a better 
induction, though, , perhaps, sufficient have been 
already mentioned to fulfil the object of this little 
work — to urge, to insist upon, a better use of expe- 
, rience — to promote the adoption of an easier, a 
surer, method of obtaining it. If, however, any 
one should be disposed to refuse assent to the 
proposition which I have advanced — that the 
sciences of observation are almost brought to a 
stand for want of a proper method of experience — 
I shall be happy to find that he is ready to assign 
a better reason for their imperfect state, or one 
which may lead us to the goal by a shorter 
road. And if any one be inclined superciliously 
to reject the method I have proposed, because 
of the meanness of the apparatus, I trust he is 
prepared with one of more finished workmanship ; 
nor shall I be either surprised or dissappointed to 
find, that, in this branch of science, the homely 



CONCLUSION. 185 

contrivance of the distaff and spindle has been 
superseded by the more powerful machinery of the 
spinning-jenny. But deeply impressed with the 
imperfect manner in which this work has accom- 
plished its object, and sensibly alive to the vast 
importance of the subject, I cannot take my leave 
of it without repeating my conviction that the 
sciences of observation are either starved or sur- 
feited through the neglect of the Baconian Logic — 
through the too light estimation of that art which 
teaches how to discover the truth, as the Aris- 
totelian should teach us how to use it. For I will 
venture to hazard the opinion, that when a tithe 
of the time has been spent upon the one, which 
has been mis-spent upon the other, — when a grain 
of the labour has been bestowed on the method 
of discovery, which has been thrown away upon 
the method of syllogism, — when the inductive logic 
shall have received that perfection and that pre- 
cision of which it is capable, — Experience will 
become an open book, easy to read, and ready to 
be understood ; purified of its false texts and 
double senses, and admitting only one construction, 
it will then prove the sure and unerring guide, 
for which it seems to have been intended by the 
great disposer of all things, — not only the planet 
to light and to direct the path of the philosopher 
through the boundless expanse of nature, but the 
monitor to teach and to advise the unlettered, as 
well as the learned, how to make the best use of 



186 CONCLUSION. 

all his bountiful endowments. But, whilst time is 
slowly bringing forth this happy sera, I must rest 
satisfied with having lent my best endeavours to 
a good cause, and, contented to bear away the 
lowly reward of a pioneer in so great a work, 
I shall learn, even in present failure, to console 
myself with the reflections of a very great master : 
" In an inquiry, it is almost every thing to be in 
a right road. I am satisfied I have done but little 
by these observations considered in themselves ; 
and I never should have taken the pains to digest 
them, much less should I have ever ventured to 
publish them, if I were not convinced that nothing 
tends more to the corruption of science than to 
suffer it to stagnate. These waters must be 
troubled before they can exert their virtues. A 
man who works beyond the surface of things, 
though he may be wrong himself, yet he clears the 
way for others, and may chance to make even his 
errors subservient to the cause of truth."* 

* Burke. 



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